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Full Text: Chapter 20: Greasing the Wheels of Human Progress: Emerging Technologies and Africa's Societal Transformation

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CHAPTER 20

Greasing the Wheels of Human Progress: Emerging Technologies and Africa’s Societal Transformation[1]

Ogechi E. Anyanwu

Eastern Kentucky University

INTRODUCTION

Technologies have evolved steadily throughout human history, certainly greasing the wheels of human progress, and are fundamental to Africa's future societal transformation. Emerging technologies could transform every aspect of human life: education, healthcare, agriculture, industry and manufacturing, governance, and security. Interest in emerging technologies, especially among experts, policymakers, and analysts, has grown over the last 30 years. The term "emerging technologies" represents an unbroken continuity of what technology represents for humanity. Although there is no "consensus on what classifies a technology as 'emergent,'” Rotolo, Hicks, and Martin have identified five key attributes of emerging technologies as radical novelty, relatively fast growth, coherence, prominent impact, and uncertainty and ambiguity.[2]They conceive of emerging technologies as radically novel and relatively fast-growing technologies characterized by a certain degree of coherence that persists over time with the potential to impact the socio-economic domain and be observable through actors, institutions, and patterns of interactions. They believe these technologies' future impact is still uncertain and ambiguous.[3]

This chapter focuses on five major categories of emerging technologies: educational technology, biotechnology, information technology, nanotechnology, robotics, and artificial intelligence. It examines how African countries engage these technologies to facilitate development, why they have yet to maximize the benefits of these technologies, and what they could do to utilize them to reach their full socio-economic potential. The transformative power of these technologies is unimaginable and holds great promise for Africa, a continent with the world's youngest and fastest-growing population. According to the International Labour Organization, "out of 600 million young people entering the labor market by 2030, one in three will be a young African."[4] The continent's fast-growing youth population could drive global growth as China's young workers once powered the global economy.

As this chapter argues, the attentiveness of governments, educational institutions, and the private sector in Africa to the transformative power and risks of emerging technologies along with their openness to deliver and manage them is the undeniable way to guarantee Africa's accelerated and sustainable development in the 21st century. African countries can put their faith in older technological and developmental models or allow their views and attitudes toward development to be modified by an open-ended conversation surrounding emerging technologies. Africa's collective openness to these new technologies is fundamental to any meaningful progress in agriculture, education, governance, healthcare, industry and manufacturing, and security. The continent could prepare a future-ready generation by fully utilizing all the educational technologies available and teaching students, as part of required general studies classes in higher institutions, the knowledge of using information technology, biotechnology nanotechnology, robotics, and AI to address natural and human obstacles that impede accelerated development in Africa.

FROM OLD TO EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

The history of human progress has been tied directly to technology. Humans have always used technology to tackle the challenges the natural environment poses to their survival and flourishing. According to Walter Rodney, the human capacity to deal with the environment "is dependent on the extent to which they understand the laws of nature (science), on the extent to which they put that understanding into practice by devising tools (technology), and on the manner in which work is organized."[5] Although understanding science and labor organizing is essential, the role of technology is decisive as it is an indispensable grease in the wheels of human progress.

The earliest humans constructed hammers, knives, and scrapers from bones, tusks, stone, and wood about 2.3 million years ago during the Old Stone Age. These tools boosted hunting, food preparation, and survival,.[6] The discovery of fire about 1.3 million years ago by Homo erectus allowed humans to cook food, offered visibility at night, and provided a source of warmth and protection from predators.[7] During the Neolithic Period about 12,000 years ago, humans discovered farming and domesticated animals, changing from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of settled existence. They built mud and clay houses to improve their lives, making fabrics from animal fur and skin to create cloth.[8] The Copper Age, about 5,000 BCE, and the Bronze Age, about 3300 BCE to 1200 BCE, saw humans extracting copper and bronze to make tools and create more accurate, smooth-shaped mechanical tools.

About 1200 BC-500 BCE, the revolutionary discovery of iron during the Iron Age allowed humans to make more capable, simple, potent, and economical tools and weapons, replacing earlier materials like bronze and stone. This age saw improvement in agricultural techniques, trade networks, and forms of warfare. The Iron Age also saw the rise of more complex, diverse societies, including the emergence of early civilizations worldwide. For instance, the mastery of iron technology allowed the Bantu-speaking people of West Africa to conquer or control the cultures they encountered during their long migration. In the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations about 800-2000 BCE, the annual floods from the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers rejuvenated the soil with rich alluvium deposits, prompting discoveries of wheels that powered construction, water transportation, and irrigation. About 25 BCE–390 CE, humans witnessed advances in engineering and scientific knowledge, leading to inventions such as concrete, dams, glassblowing, reservoirs, and other advanced building technology during the Roman Empire.[9] The period between the 5th and 15th centuries, otherwise known as the Dark Ages, saw some significant technological discoveries such as blast furnaces, buttons for clothing, eyeglasses, firearms, gunpowder, the heavy plow, hourglasses, magnetic compasses, mechanical clocks, modern glassmaking, movable type printing presses, the numbering system, paper money, quarantine, sawmills, spinning wheels, and tidal mills, among other inventions of tools and methods. These innovations contributed to shaping our contemporary world.[10]

Technology has witnessed tremendous modernization since the 16th century. Some of the discoveries in the 16th century, such as the blast furnace, firearms, horizontal water wheel, nautical compass, pocket watch, printing press, and other tools, shaped various aspects of society and contributed to the Scientific Revolution, the Protestant Reformation, and the democratization of knowledge. In the 17th century, technological discoveries such as blood transfusion, calculating machines, devices for measurement (e.g., micrometers, barometers, pendulum clocks), more types of scopes (e.g., reflecting telescopes, microscopes that could see bacteria), and steam pumps powered societies forward. Significant technological discoveries in the 18th century, such as the flush toilet, the lightning rod, lithography, the navigational clock, a vaccination for smallpox, and other advancements, transformed health and transportation. Some of the major technological discoveries in the 19th century—such as the automobile, the Bessemer process, the electric battery, electric motor, steam locomotive, telegraph, telephone, and X-rays—impacted society, transforming various aspects of everyday life, industry, transportation, communication, and entertainment, and influenced social, cultural, and economic development.

In the 20th century, inventions such as airplanes, antibiotics (including penicillin), DNA structure, the internet, the mobile phone, nuclear energy, personal computing, space exploration, the television have significantly [11] the world, transforming the way humans communicate, travel, understand the universe, and improve our daily lives. While the invention of airplanes has enabled humans to reach places faster than before, the computer and the internet have allowed humans to perform numerous complex and critical operations within seconds, turning the world into a global village. In sum, the modern world would have been unthinkable without technological development throughout history.

Africa played a significant role in the technological development of humans in architecture, astronomy, engineering, mathematics, medicine, metallurgy, and toolmaking, among other fields. Ancient Egyptians developed high-school-level math concepts 35,000 years ago, including division and multiplication of fractions and geometric formulas. Egyptians also built “the bafflingly raised obelisks and the more than 80 pyramids."[12] Ancient African cultures charted the sun's movement, constellations, and the moon's cycles. Advancements in metallurgy include art; carbon steel and bronze weapons; copper and iron tools and weapons; glue; metal chisels and saws; nails; and steam engines.[13] Many medical treatments used today were employed by several ancient peoples throughout Africa, including using "[14]Kaopectate, and extracts that were confirmed in the 20th century to kill" gram-positive bacteria.[15]

The new technologies of the 21st century promise to facilitate economic, political, and social developments in Africa. Africa’s academic institutions must prepare the future-ready generation by utilizing available educational and information technologies and ensuring that graduates possess the knowledge, skills, or interest in how biotechnology, nanotechnology, robotics, and AI could address natural and human obstacles undermining accelerated development in Africa.

A FUTURE-READY GENERATION VIA EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational technology is fundamental to preparing a future-ready generation in Africa. Educational technology combines computer hardware, software, and academic "theory and practice to improve teaching and learning."[16] The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) defined educational technology as "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources."[17] Worldwide investment in educational technologies has surged in the past twenty years, promising to boost African development in all sectors.

The gap between education in Africa and advanced countries is vast. Therefore, the accessibility, equity, and quality of education on the continent have ramifications for the continent and the world. Since the number of young people in Africa will grow, educational institutions should offer them skills for the future. According to the Brookings Institution, "it will take the average student in sub-Saharan Africa almost 100 years to catch up to the average student in high-income countries in terms of how many years of school she will attend and how much she will learn."[18] The World Economic Forum suggested that the world should look to "Africa for education innovation" because "Africa could provide the majority of the world's new workers within the next 30 years."[19] Ruchir Sharma echoed this sentiment in The Financial Times, arguing, "The biggest problem for global growth is Africa, now home to 1.5bn people."[20]

An increasing number of African countries are leveraging innovation in educational technology to address the most pressing challenges facing education, such as access, quality of instruction, lack of resources, and teacher shortages, and other African countries can learn from those initiatives. Ethiopia and Liberia have implemented the Luminos Fund's Second Chance program, which is an accelerated learning program for out-of-school children. Malawi implemented technology-enabled, child-directed personalized learning using solar-powered tablets.[21] The War Child Holland's Can't Wait to Learn initiative—a tablet-based gaming application in Sudan and Uganda—has provided Internally Displaced People (IDPs), out-of-school youth, and teachers and refugees with access to education through online courses, mobile devices, and WhatsApp study groups. There are also the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) and the Vodafone Foundation's "Instant Network Schools." Based in eight refugee camps in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, South Sudan, and Tanzania, these initiative[22] connect refugee students and teachers to digital educational content. J.M. Ledgard was right when he declared, "In a continent with few computers and little electricity, a smartphone is not just a phone—it's a potential revolution." [23] Nothing could be further from the truth.

Lack of funds to purchase educational materials can be overcome through Open Educational Resources (OER) and content licenses that make academic content available to students and teachers. Siyavula and South Africa's Department of Basic Education (DBE) developed open-source science and math textbooks for every grade 10-12 student. It has also digitalized its curriculum, making all content and materials available online. The UK Open University's Teacher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa (TESSA) Secondary Science program provides teachers in Ghana, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Zambia with open education resources, teaching resources, and other materials. Ugandan learners use Toolkit to help build academic and life skills through interactive, self-paced, and personalized learning over SMS, measuring progress and performance. Eneza Education in Kenya is helping primary and secondary school students using virtual tutorials on curriculum-aligned content in all subjects. In Nigeria, Tuteria uses AI to connect qualified tutors to students within a particular area and budget, verify IDs, conduct background checks, and evaluate tutors' performance. In South Africa, Botlhale AI specializes in conversational AI; with emphasis on natural language processing tools, this company ensures that those who speak African languages are included in[24] Ubongo, a Tanzanian learning platform, uses interactive education to teach math and science to primary school students. Stereo.me[25] The initiatives could serve as a model for other African countries to make education accessible to millions, thus closing the educational gap between them and the advanced world.

Supplementing traditional school offerings also furnishes technical skills that students do not receive in secondary school. Andela (in Kampala, Lagos, and Nairobi) and Gebeya (in Ethiopia) train secondary-school graduates and out-of-school youth to be full-stack software developers and match them with paying clients. More private schools across Sub-Saharan Africa are using ICTs to support knowledge delivery. Across Sub-Saharan Africa, parents and students are making evident their dissatisfaction with low-quality education by moving their children into low-cost private schools. Many of these mixed primary and secondary school chains—e.g., SPARK in South Africa and Nova Pioneer Schools in Kenya and South Africa—use blended learning and computer-aided instruction to provide students with more individualized instruction and remediation. The Patience and Claudius Anyanwu Foundation in Nigeria is consciously offering free after-school lessons to middle and high school students to promote “African community development by imparting self-employment skills to the African youth through capacity building in education, mentoring, computers, agriculture, sewing, sports, women empowerment, and healthcare.”[26]

Many African higher institutions have IT departments yet have not adequately leveraged these technologies to advance scholarships, teaching, and administration. Many lecturers in higher institutions needlessly waste time in the 21st century entering their results manually before submission. If technology is fully utilized, students can see their results within one week after the end of the semester. There is no reason for graduates to wait endlessly to obtain their academic transcripts while educational technologies, such as Blackboard and Canvas, exist to make it easy.

Challenges facing the educational sector must be addressed to maximize the opportunities for educational technologies. These technologies can be fully utilized only by addressing concerns such as cybersecurity threats, data privacy issues, inadequate hardware, poor internet connectivity, protection of sensitive information, and unreliable electricity. Many schools and communities still need the necessary infrastructure, such as computers, internet connectivity, and electricity. The government should address the existing disparities in access to digital literacy skills among teachers, students, and communities with adequate resources. Concerns such as heavy reliance on external funding and lack of long-term planning should be addressed for the benefits of educational technologies to be sustainable. More importantly, educating educators is critical. Sufficient training and support for teachers to effectively integrate technology into their teaching practices are fundamental to their success. Social sensitization is essential to educate society about the benefits of technology and overcome the cultural attitudes that exacerbate resistance to changes in education.

Educational institutions should be at the forefront of instilling the knowledge of emerging technologies. They must find ways to discuss the utility of these technologies as fundamental to transforming the continent, unconstrained by discussion of morality. Recently, the founder and proprietor of Madonna University, Reverend Father Emmanuel Edeh, announced that girls who were admitted as virgins into the university always graduate as virgins. Is this an achievement worth celebrating? What would that do to society if those graduates were also virgins in terms of knowledge of emerging technologies?[27] Africa needs to graduate students from our educational institutions with knowledge of the transformative power of educational technologies and understanding and engaging with other technologies that could potentially boost growth in health, agriculture, and other vitally important areas of human development. That is biotechnology. Africa must prepare students with the skills employers seek in the 21st century, such as those who can manipulate new technologies, not those who graduated as virgins. The world is changing fast, and Africans must keep up with the changes in how they learn.

USING BIOTECHNOLOGY TO ENGINEER HEALTH AND FOOD SECURITY

Africa needs students trained in using biotechnology to engineer health and food security. Higher educational institutions must produce those graduates. Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that integrates natural and engineering sciences to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogs for products and services.[28] Often called biotech, biotechnology has existed since the beginning of civilization with the domestication of plants and animals and the discovery of fermentation."[29] It uses biology to develop new products, methods, and organisms to improve human health and society. Biotechnology can facilitate African development by improving agriculture, addressing health challenges, managing the environment, industrial development, improving nutrition, supporting sustainable development, building scientific capacity, addressing climate change, supporting enterprises, and improving livestock.

According to Eric Danquah, a plant geneticist and the founding director of the West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI), agriculture is the most significant contributor to the economy, employing two-thirds of the workforce and contributing 20-60% of GDP. Yet, it faces challenges such as diseases, low productivity, pests, post-harvest losses, soil fertility loss, threats from climate change shocks, and water scarcity.[30] Even though Africa contributes just four percent of global carbon emissions, climate change devastates the continent. African heads of state and government gathered in Nairobi, Kenya, in September 2023 and acknowledged that "climate change is the single greatest challenge facing humanity."[31] Africa is particularly vulnerable, comprising 50% of the world's smallholder farmers. Climate change negatively affects agriculture due to rapid changes in weather patterns, rising temperatures, and the prevalence of drought incidences, floods, and plant diseases. Pathogens have continued to reduce crop productivity significantly. Pest outbreaks are frequent in Africa and account for up to 40% of maize, potato, rice, soybean, and wheat crop yield losses worldwide, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). In a world where food insecurity is already the reality for more than 800 million people, the losses are catastrophic.[32]

Agricultural biotechnology, which applies scientific techniques to modify and improve plants, animals, and microorganisms to increase their value, can address some of the problems imposed on food production by climatic change. [33] Biotechnology has improved trait expression, productivity, and product quality through techniques and novel genetic strategies. Several crop varieties have been developed through biotechnology.[34] Biotechnology can enhance crop yields, disease resistance, and drought tolerance, improving food security. Emmanuel Okogbenin, Director of Program Development and Commercialization at the African Conference on Agricultural Technologies (ACAT), argues, "The adoption of biotechnology and complementary innovative technologies can catalyze productivity transformation and improve food system resilience in the developing world."[35] Yet few African institutions are equipped with the resources and human capacity to undertake disease diagnosis and management. [36]

Biotechnology is helping to develop drought-resistant crops that can tolerate harsh environmental conditions, such as drought, improving crop yield that can help address food security challenges. Kenya is one of the African countries using biotechnology to develop drought-resistant crops. In addition to Ethiopia, scientists in Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, and Sudan are also developing genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Over the last two decades, advances in monitoring systems have boosted the capacity for disease diagnoses. For example, Sampea 20-T is a pod borer resistant (PBR) cowpea variety that is tried for improved protection from Maruca vitrata to optimize cowpea productivity. This biotech product was released in Nigeria in 2021.

Another major project developed to address climate change impact is the TELA Maize, a public-private partnership program that has developed drought-tolerant, insect-protected maize against stem borers and FAW in several countries–including Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, and Nigeria.[37] In 1998, South Africa became the first African country to plant biotech crops, beginning with insect-resistant cotton, followed by maize and soybeans. Only six other African countries have approved GM crops: Eswatini, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, Sudan, and Kenya. It is under development in 11 different states. Malawi, Nigeria, and Sudan grow GM cotton, while field trials of several other GM crops—e.g., banana, cassava, cowpea, and Irish potato—occur in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Rwanda, and [38]established by the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) in 2006 as a platform for advancing stakeholder interactions on agriculture biotechnology and supported by AUDA-NEPAD.[39]

Sixty percent of Africans are involved in agriculture. Why are they not feeding the world? Why are Africans food insecure? Conventional farming in Africa seems inadequate. Farmers still rely on unimproved seed. Farmers need improved varieties powered by technology. Africa needs to plant for food and jobs. Farmers in Africa could be better. Over 70% of Africans make a living through agriculture, and technology could transform their world. The governments in Africa need to subsidize farming, especially big-time ones. Making products from biotechnology available to farmers is vital to increase productivity, alleviate poverty, and increase nutrition. Promoting new technology-powered farming without destroying existing ones is also fundamental. BT cotton, a genetically modified crop, has had a mixed impact in Africa; it has improved yields and reduced pesticide use in South Africa and Sudan. However, in Burkina Faso, it led to lower-quality cotton and reduced demand. Its adoption is limited in other countries due to concerns over quality and licensing fees.[40] The adoption of GMOs in Africa has been minimal due to concerns about safety, trade, compatibility with local farm systems, and dependence on foreign private sectors for the technology.[41] Biotechnology should not undermine local knowledge but build upon it; it should recognize that other members of the ecosystem depend on existing species. African countries must understand that foreign interests pushing for new species are marketers looking for profits. Biotechnology is improving livestock production in African countries such as Kenya, where probiotics improve the weight gain of indigenous chickens. Ethiopia uses community-based breeding programs to improve small ruminant genetics. Kenya uses infection and treatment methods to control East Coast fever in cattle. Ethiopia uses the same for chicken breeds for better growth performance in different agroecological zones.[42]

Biotechnology is used to cure diseases in Africa, such as developing new drugs and treatments for malaria, like artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs). It has enabled the development of antiretroviral therapy (ART) drugs, which have significantly improved treatment outcomes for HIV/AIDS patients in Africa. It has led to new diagnostic tools and treatments for tuberculosis, such as GeneXpert. It was used to develop experimental vaccines and treatments during the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa. It has led to the development of gene therapy and other treatments for sickle cell anemia, which is prevalent in many African countries. It has led to the development of new vaccines and treatments for cholera, which is a significant public health concern in Africa. It has helped to develop new drugs and diagnostic tools for river blindness. These are just a few examples of how biotechnology is used to cure diseases in Africa. Biotechnology has the potential to impact healthcare in Africa significantly, and research should be ongoing to develop new treatments and therapies for various diseases.

Africa must find ways to engage in a conversation about using these technologies to promote health and well-being in Africa that is not held hostage by Iron Age views and attitudes, as observable in our religious institutions, where many still seek divine healing. Understanding technology's power in Africa should undermine popular faith healing. Emerging technologies will answer many health questions that drive millions to church, hoping for a miracle when AI can easily potentially detect the problem. Men and women of God have perpetrated open fraud by engaging in false faith healing when energies could have been directed to biotech.

Biotechnology's potential to transform human life in Africa is endless. It could help clean up pollution, monitor environmental health, improve waste management, and support the growth of biofuels, bioplastics, and bioproducts. It could enhance the nutritional value of crops, address micronutrient deficiencies, and help Africa reduce poverty, improve health, and promote sustainable agriculture. It could create new business opportunities and support entrepreneurship in Africa. It could improve animal health, breeding, and productivity, supporting livestock production and food security. However, it is essential to ensure that biotechnology is developed and deployed responsibly and ethically, addressing access, equity, and safety concerns.

RESHAPING AFRICA COMMUNITIES THROUGH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Information technology (IT) is a broad field that includes computer systems, software, programming languages, and data processing and storage. It also consists of the design, development, application, implementation, support, and management of computer-based information systems.[43] It has improved transparency in governance and facilitated e-commerce, e-learning, telemedicine, mobile banking, and cybersecurity in various African countries. Information technology drives almost every aspect of our modern world, and Africa must prepare students who are attentive to using these technologies to promote development.

Information technology is an integral part of educational technology and has been used to promote e-learning in various ways. According to UNESCO, approximately 1.2 billion students and youth worldwide were affected by school and university closures because of the COVID-19 pandemic.[44]Therefore, the idea of "business as usual" in education is unfeasible in the foreseeable future as governments, students, parents, and teachers must all adjust to the changing circumstances.[45] The ICT Transforming Education in Africa project, launched in 2015, fosters human and social development in African countries by using information and communication technology (ICT) for education.[46] Many African countries are implementing distance, e-learning, and open initiatives and have incorporated digital e-learning teaching technologies to enhance accessibility. Unless the digital divide affecting millions in Africa is addressed, IT will not fully support education and economic growth. To fully realize the potential of e-learning, citizens need access to smart devices and high levels of digital literacy. Cultural willingness to engage in remote learning will point to more educated adults with reliable access to electricity. By comparison, people's overall level of wealth and geographic location are less likely to shape their ability to participate in the transition to e-learning.[47]

Information technology is powering a flourishing e-commerce in Africa, with 400 million internet users, making it a vast and promising market. Jumia, Africa's most significant internet group, has succeeded in e-commerce despite logistical challenges like lack of addresses and fragmented logistics. The International Trade Centre (ICT) reports 631 online marketplaces in Africa, with 2.2 billion visits in 2019, primarily driven by ten countries.[48] E-commerce benefits include creating jobs, empowering women entrepreneurs, and serving rural areas. However, challenges persist, such as low consumer digital trust, inadequate infrastructure, and limited payment systems. Addressing these issues can unlock e-commerce's potential for sustainable development in Africa.[49]

Some initiatives in Africa use information technology to improve governance and promote transparency in Africa. Wayan Vota co-founded ICTworks and has shown how many African countries have used information technologies to enhance their work in his research. Ghana introduced a digital revenue collection platform that modernizes how it collects fees and pays vendors. Benin established a government data interoperability framework to allow public sector organizations to share and reuse information effectively. Côte d'Ivoire implemented a Security Operations Centre (SOC) to address cybersecurity challenges and ensure the reliability of digital transactions. Kenya established Huduma Digital Access Centers, which provide citizens with easy access to government services through an online portal. Rwanda launched IremboGov, an online portal that offers over 100 citizen-centered public services, reducing corruption and promoting transparency.[50] Challenges include low literacy rates, underdeveloped telecommunication infrastructure, a lack of government commitment to genuine digital transformation, and a more transparent and citizen-centric approach. Other challenges include digital literacy, governance, ICT skills, leadership, and resource access.

African countries have been using information technology to promote telemedicine. Ethiopia implemented a telemedicine program in 1980 under the HealthNet project. Sudan implemented a telemedicine program between 2011 and 2012 through the Gezira Family Medicine Project. Ghana established a consultation network with Medicare Line (US) in 2009 to facilitate communication between physicians and surgeons. Nigeria launched initiatives to integrate cloud computing for building its telemedicine infrastructure in 2017. Rwanda introduced tele-robotics to treat COVID-19 cases. Uganda witnessed an increased use of teleconsultation to ensure continuity of healthcare for patients, established call centers, and online healthcare to provide triage and referral services to the general public. South Africa and Mozambique used telemedicine services (mainly internet-based technologies) for distance learning and teleconsultations in 2000-2001. Angola introduced telepediatrics to expand specialist pediatric and child healthcare services between 2007 and 2008. Mauritius and Botswana implemented a nationwide telehealth project to promote more comprehensive access to patient care while advancing medical education for physicians. Botswana launched initiatives to integrate cloud computing for building its telemedicine infrastructure in 2017. These examples demonstrate the progress in implementing telemedicine programs in Africa, highlighting the potential for improved healthcare access and outcomes.[51]

Africa is an emerging world leader in digital and mobile banking, with the highest number of account holders, services, and transactions. In Africa, mobile banking started as a facility for transferring airtime between mobile accounts but quickly became an alternative money transfer system due to a lack of well-developed nationwide banking networks. Mobile payment services like M-Pesa in Kenya and OPay in Nigeria have expanded across the continent and into other developing markets. INTERPOL identifies the top cyber threats in Africa, including botnets, business email compromise, digital extortion, online scams, and ransomware. The INTERPOL report highlights the importance of a coordinated regional response and a robust cybersecurity framework to combat cybercrime. Additionally, a 2022-2023 report on the cybersecurity threatscape[52] African countries have used information technology to promote cybersecurity. Kenya established the Kenya Cybersecurity Alliance, a public-private partnership to enhance cybersecurity awareness and coordination. South Africa launched the National Cybersecurity Hub to report and respond to cyber threats. Nigeria established the Nigerian Cybercrime Act, a law aimed at combating cybercrime. Ghana set up the National Cyber Security Centre, a government agency responsible for online safety and protection from infiltration. Rwanda launched the Rwanda Cybersecurity Initiative, a program to enhance cybersecurity skills and awareness. Mauritius established the Mauritius Computer Emergency Response Team, responsible for acting efficiently and effectively act in instances of cyber threats. Egypt launched the Egyptian Computer Emergency Readiness Team, a team responsible for enhancing cybersecurity and responding to criminal and unauthorized use of the country’s web-based systems. Morocco established the Moroccan Cybersecurity Agency, a government agency responsible for detecting and stopping criminal use of its technology. These examples demonstrate how African countries proactively use information technology to enhance cybersecurity and protect their digital infrastructure and citizens from cyber threats.

Law enforcement agencies, governments, and civil society organizations could use IT to combat kidnapping and other forms of crime in Africa. Africans use information technology in various ways to fight crime. Some examples include geospatial technology, which uses satellite imagery and geographic information systems (GIS) to track and locate kidnapping victims. Mobile phone tracking uses cellular signals to trace the location of kidnappers and victims. Social media monitoring involves analyzing activity on social networks to identify and track kidnapping gangs. Data analytics requires tools to analyze patterns and trends in kidnapping incidents. Online reporting platforms involve creating online platforms for citizens to report kidnapping incidents and provide tips to law enforcement. Facial recognition technology uses biometric systems to identify and track suspected kidnappers by comparing a large database of facial photos.

SMART DEVELOPMENT THROUGH ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ROBOTICS

Artificial intelligence and robotics work hand in hand, changing our world, touching every industry, from finance to farming, ushering in the 4th industrial revolution. African governments should invest in these technologies to ensure the continent is not left behind. AI allows machines to learn from experience, adjust to new inputs, and perform human-like tasks. Most AI examples today–from chess-playing computers to self-driving cars–rely heavily on deep learning and natural language processing. Artificial intelligence helps healthcare, retail, manufacturing, and banking. Robotics is the interdisciplinary study and practice of robot design, construction, operation, and use.[53] Current and potential applications include agriculture, automated mining, autonomous transport, construction, lawncare, manufacturing, medicine, military, and robots to perform tasks.

AI and robotics can facilitate African development by enhancing learning through interactive robots and e-learning platforms; automating farming processes to increase efficiency and productivity by predicting weather patterns; assisting with surgeries, patient care, and medical research; tracking and mitigating the effects of climate change, deforestation, and pollution; expanding access to financial services, such as mobile payments and micro-lending; optimizing natural resource extraction and conservation; and improving safety and efficiency in mining operations. They could also create new business opportunities and jobs in the robotics industry, improving productivity and quality in industries such as automotive and textiles; construction, maintenance, and monitoring of roads, bridges, and buildings; and assisting with renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power.

The transformative potential of AI and robotics is destined to reshape work, society, and human development. The impact is felt around the globe. Africa is witnessing a surge in AI innovation, with startups and local solutions emerging to tackle challenges in agriculture, education, and healthcare. According to the President of Microsoft Africa, Lillian Barnard, "Embracing the transformative power of artificial intelligence (AI) is central to our vision for Africa's future." As Barnard puts it, "AI will revolutionize the way we do business across the African continent. This revolution transcends mere technological advancement; it marks a strategic turning point wherein AI will be leveraged to catalyze sustainable growth and chart a course towards a future brimming with innovation and boundless opportunity for Africa."[54] In Kenya, Chatbots provide healthcare services to people without visiting doctors. In Nigeria, a data-driven platform called Zenvus delivers insights to farmers; it is a pioneering precision farming technology company that uses computational algorithms and electronics to transform farms. Zenvus collects soil fertility and crop vegetative health data to deliver precision agriculture at scale. It then uses the aggregated and anonymized data to provide financial services to farmers. Mama Money and Mukuru enable easy and quick transfers across African countries in South Africa. Kudi, a Nigerian AI-powered Chatbot, aims to provide financial services to underprivileged people. Nigeria and South Africa have online shopping facilities such as Konga and TakeAlot that use AI to enhance customer experience.[55]

Many countries in Africa address malaria, tuberculosis (TB), and HIV/AIDS through AI-aided disease diagnostics. AI is filling the gap of “medical deserts” by supporting healthcare worker shortages through AI-assisted diagnosis and treatment. It helps to analyze medical images and genomes to improve diagnosis and treatment. In Mozambique, TB is diagnosed using AI-connected X-ray machines. It helps develop region-specific AI models to tackle healthcare concerns by optimizing community health worker scheduling and drug discovery.[56] AI-powered diagnostic solutions are used in Ghana and Rwanda to improve medical imaging analysis, enabling early detection of diseases like breast cancer and tuberculosis. AI is aiding farmers in Kenya and Nigeria with data-driven recommendations for fertilizer application, increasing efficiency and productivity. AI-driven educational tools are being used to enhance learning and employability, and AI is revolutionizing banking in East Africa, enabling financial inclusion through mobile banking platforms like M-Pesa.[57]

Africa could deploy AI to fight crime. AI-powered systems can detect fraudulent transactions like unauthorized credit card use or identity theft. AI-powered cameras can analyze footage from surveillance to detect suspicious activity and alert authorities. It could facilitate the analysis of forensic evidence, such as DNA or fingerprints. AI-powered facial recognition systems can help identify suspects and track their movements. AI-powered chatbots can help engage with the community and support community policing. Finally, it could help investigators analyze large amounts of data and identify connections between cases.

However, the adoption and use of AI and robotics in Africa also face challenges such as ethics, government policies, skills acquisition, insufficient infrastructure and network connectivity, lack of structured data ecosystem, uncertainty, and user attitude. AI and robotics can potentially revolutionize the African economy, but challenges include limited infrastructure, data availability and quality, legal and policy issues, and costs. Senegalese AI expert Seydina Moussa Ndiaye highlights the potential benefits and warns against "digital colonization" by foreign companies exploiting African data without local involvement. The UN's AI advisory group aims to address these concerns and ensure international [58] Addressing these challenges is crucial to harnessing the full potential of AI to promote development in Africa. However, addressing data privacy, bias, and security challenges is vital to ensuring that AI is developed and deployed to benefit African communities and economies.

NANOTECHNOLOGY, THE ENABLER OF OTHER TECHNOLOGIES

Nanotechnology is the enabler and enhancer of other technologies and products. It involves creating nanostructures by rearranging the atoms of the objects, thus making new, lighter, and stronger properties. This field uses novel properties and phenomena at this scale to create new materials, devices, and systems. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter on a near-atomic scale to produce new structures, materials, and devices."[59] It could promote scientific development in consumer products, energy, manufacturing, materials, and medicine, among other avenues.

Nanotechnology is increasingly found in many commercial products, from mobile phones and cosmetics to pharmaceuticals and robotics. Nanotechnology offers new opportunities for promoting sustainable development in ways that were perceived as impossible only a few decades ago. Today, cheaper but faster, smaller, smarter, and more energy-efficient materials, components, and devices drive growth in information technology, biotechnology, and energy and environmental technologies. Significant progress in robotics, electronics, and artificial intelligence would not have been possible without developing increasingly light, small, and robust nanotechnology materials and components. Indeed, a smartphone today has more storage capacity, processing power, and longer battery life than the average laptop of two decades ago. At the heart of this revolution lies nanotechnology, which enables manufacturers to manipulate matter on an invisible scale to build increasingly small, light, solid, and intelligent materials and devices.[60]

Nanotechnology has the potential to facilitate African development in various ways, including advanced materials and manufacturing, chemical- and bioprocessing, energy, food production, health care, mining and minerals, and water purification. Additionally, it can contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and Agenda 2063 of the African Union. African countries have made some contributions to nanotechnology research and applications. From nano filters for water purification in Ethiopia and Tanzania to nanocatalysts and nanosensors in Egypt and South Africa, nanotechnology broadens "the scope of current approaches and creates[61]" Egypt is currently the top nanotechnology research country in Africa. At the same time, South Africa is the African country that has filed the most patents and established the most nanotechnology companies and institutions.

Nanotechnology can revolutionize food production in Africa by improving food security, safety, and quality through enhancing food bioavailability, consistency, taste, and texture; improving food processing, packaging, and preservation; reducing food waste and increasing shelf life; detecting food toxins and contaminants; and developing nano-based delivery systems for nutraceuticals. Egypt, Ethiopia, South Africa, and Tanzania use nanotechnology in food production. Researchers in South Africa are researching and developing nanotechnology in food production, specifically in meat production, food processing, packaging, and preservation. Walter Sisulu University in South Africa also has a niche area focused on small-scale agribusiness and rural non-farm enterprises, which research nanotechnology applications in agriculture and food production.[62] Implementing nanotechnology in food production in Africa may also have challenges, such as regulatory frameworks, public acceptance, and potential environmental impacts.[63]

Nanotechnology can potentially improve health in Africa by treating HIV/AIDS and malaria, including improving access to clean water through disinfection processes, purification, and remediation.[64] Egyptian scientists synthesized silver nanoparticles to develop antimicrobial coatings for medical devices and wound dressings. South African researchers created a nanostructured titanium implant to improve bone growth in dental and orthopedic applications. South African company Nanolek developed a nanoparticle-based drug delivery system for treating tuberculosis. Kenyan researchers used nanotechnology to develop a low-cost, point-of-care diagnostic tool for malaria. Moroccan scientists developed a nano [65]

African researchers can learn a lot from applying nanotechnologies to improve health and the environment. However, it's essential to consider the potential risks posed by nanotechnology-based products to humans and ecological systems. Some of the challenges of using nanotechnologies in Africa include the lack of a harmonized regulatory framework for nanotechnology, limited human capacity and skills in regulatory science, limited research and development partnerships between industry, universities, and research institutions, restricted access to technology and technical knowledge, limited industry applicability and practicality in education and training programs, and resource constraints. Addressing these challenges could involve capacity-building programs, regional centers of excellence in nanotechnology, and collaboration with international organizations.[66]

CONCLUSION

Given the potential for Africa to transform its economy and society by adopting emerging technologies, the government and the private sector must partner to position Africa to reap the rewards these technologies promise. Human civilization is a product of an unbroken continuity of technological discoveries and advances that previous generations have increasingly made over millions of years. Africans today are linked to the past. They are part of a system. They are part of a fellowship that started before birth and will continue after death. What they do now matters. It matters to them today and the next generation. Africa must place its confidence in emerging technologies and maximize their opportunities to accelerate economic and social development in the 21st century. Africa's willingness to embrace the idea that technological advances are unstoppable and could transform human societies in unthinkable ways is the only hope of leaving the continent a better place for future generations. If Africa is to use the full measure of human knowledge and creativity in science and technology to solve problems facing the continent, it must embrace emerging technologies.

END NOTES

  1. This article is a revised keynote address delivered by Ogechi E. Anyanwu at the 2024 Hybrid Conference of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Faculty of Education in Collaboration with Fontis Aid Foundation, Anambra, Nigeria, at ASUU Secretariat, May 2, 2024. ↑

  2. Daniele Rotolo, Diana Hicks, and Ben Martin, “What is an emerging technology?” (University of Sussex, 2023), Retrieved March 20, 2024, from https://hdl.handle.net/10779/uos.23420075.v1 ↑

  3. Ibid. ↑

  4. International Labour Organization, “The Future of Work for Africa’s Youth,” Press release, November 1, 2016, Retrieved March 2, 2024, from https://www.ilo.org/africa/media-centre/pr/WCMS_534052/lang--en/index.htm↑

  5. Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, London and Tanzanian Publishing House, Dar-Es-Salaam, 1973), 4. ↑

  6. David Christian, Big History: Between Nothing and Everything (New York: McGraw Hill Education, 2014). ↑

  7. Steven R. James, “Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene: A Review of the Evidence," Current Anthropology, 30, no. 1 (Feb. 1989): 1–26. ↑

  8. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994). ↑

  9. Robert Angus Buchanan, “History of Technology,” Britannica, March 4, 2024, Retrieved March 21, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/technology/history-of-technology↑

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  12. For more information, see Ivan Van Sertima, Blacks in Science: Ancient and Modern (New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1991); Sydella Blatch, “Great achievements in science and technology in ancient Africa,” ASBMB Today, February 1, 2013, Retrieved April 19, 2024, from https://www.asbmb.org/asbmb-today/science/020113/great-achievements-in-stem-in-ancient-africa↑

  13. Ibid. ↑

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