3. Defining Ethics and Related Terminology

Why are we here?; Textbook Definitions – the basics; Ethical vs. Legal; Critical Thinking and Limiting Biases

Wow! If THAT isn’t a loaded question!

But that is exactly what we would like to tackle at this point. Why should we think about this concept of Ethics and how it can be defined and applied to technology?

To get our own thoughts germinating, I asked several generative AI platforms (Perplexity, ChatGPT, Claude, and Gemini) to provide a hypothetical response to this question as written from the perspective of several selected ethicists. Here is what was generated:

• Immanuel Kant (Deontological Ethics)"We must think about ethics in technology because human beings possess inherent dignity as rational agents, and technology must never treat us merely as means to an end. Every technological system embeds moral choices about how humans should be treated, and without ethical reflection, we risk creating tools that violate our fundamental duty to respect human autonomy and dignity. The categorical imperative demands that we only develop technologies whose principles we could will to be universal laws—would we want to live in a world where all technology operates according to the ethical assumptions built into our current systems?"
• René Descartes (Rationalism)"We must apply systematic ethical reasoning to technology because, without methodical analysis, we build upon uncertain foundations that may lead us astray. Just as I doubted everything to reach clear and distinct knowledge, we must doubt the moral assumptions embedded in our technologies and rebuild them on solid rational principles. Technology amplifies human action, so any errors in our ethical reasoning will be magnified across society—we cannot afford to proceed on mere tradition, convenience, or popular opinion when the stakes are so high."
• John Stuart Mill (Utilitarianism)"Ethics in technology matters because technology's power to generate both tremendous benefits and serious harms across vast populations demands careful calculation of consequences. We must evaluate whether our technological choices truly maximize overall human happiness and well-being, while vigilantly protecting individual liberty from technological systems that might restrict human self-determination. The harm principle requires us to examine whether our technologies prevent individuals from pursuing their own good in their own way, even when such technologies might benefit the majority."
• Martha Nussbaum (Humanism)"We need ethics in technology because technology should serve human flourishing by expanding rather than constraining human capabilities. Every technological design choice affects whether people can live fully human lives—whether they can engage in practical reason, form meaningful relationships, experience joy, exercise bodily autonomy, and participate in political life. Without ethical reflection, we risk creating technologies that diminish rather than enhance what makes us human, particularly for those who are already marginalized or vulnerable in society."
• Carol Gilligan (Feminist Ethics)"Ethics in technology is essential because technological decisions affect relationships, care networks, and the voices that get heard in our society. We must ask not just whether technologies work efficiently, but whether they strengthen or weaken our capacity for care, empathy, and connection with others. Ethical reflection helps us recognize whose perspectives have been excluded from technological design and ensures that we consider how our tools affect the most vulnerable members of our communities, particularly when those voices are often silenced in traditional ethical frameworks."
• Don Ihde (Phenomenology)"We must think ethically about technology because humans and technologies co-constitute each other's existence—there is no neutral technology, and every technological relation shapes how we perceive, act, and experience the world. Ethics helps us examine how specific technologies alter our ways of being-in-the-world, sometimes in ways we don't immediately recognize. Without phenomenological reflection on our actual lived experience with technologies, we may inadvertently adopt tools that fundamentally change what it means to be human without conscious deliberation about whether those changes align with our values."

Did these hypothetical responses from historic and contemporary ethicists actually help you discover or clarify your own reason for being here?

For some individuals, simply reviewing what others have previously thought or discovered about a topic can be truly enlightening and inspiring! Academics and Ethicists through the ages have invested much of their lives and studies to review, categorize, differentiate, and subsequently expand and expound on what others have to say about Ethics. And sometimes, they find that one or more of these other people had previously found ways to express, precisely or nearly so, just what it was that they, themselves, think about the topic.

And yet for other individuals, the flood of disparate and often contradictory positions on the supposed same topic seems to simply add levels of confusion and introduce unintentional biases. These individuals feel that the research actually gets in the way of their own ability to figure anything out for themselves.

So, whichever kind of person you may be, I’d like to re-ask the questions: Why are we here? Why should we think about this concept of Ethics and how it can be defined and applied to technology?

Very early in my career, I learned an important lesson that has informed my entire professional and teaching philosophy: When working with adults, if all individuals involved can first understand and agree on ‘the WHY’ of whatever it is that they are doing, then adults tend to be more receptive to fully engage in the related tasks. So, for me, I try to consistently first ask and answer the question, “Why are we doing this again?” before we even get started.

For me, the WHY is that, as a technology professional for my entire career, I have seen too often – first hand – what the unethical implementation of technology looks like and what I have perceived to be the harmful ramifications of these unethical situations. And as such, I choose to intentionally explore the ethics surrounding technology so that I can be more prepared to work with students, colleagues and clients as we collectively discover just what the ethical issues might be. This has helped me identify and recognize some of my own biases and has helped me learn how to be more objective in my ethical analysis of new technological advancements.

Also, as previously mentioned, the proactive intentional examination of the Ethics of Technology may reward individuals by helping them to feel more prepared when they find themselves required to make decisions or take actions with significant ethical implications.

In order to create a baseline of terminology that will be used throughout the rest of the text, this section now provides a collection of terms along with definitions to be used as some of the basic ‘textbook definitions’ for continuing conversations. These definitions are not to be considered absolute! In fact, it will be important for you to ask yourself if you agree with the definition as presented or, if not, what aspects do you think may need clarification. Also, in future chapters, the additional terms will be listed at the end of the chapter vs. here, in the middle of the chapter.

• Ethics – The systematized principles and standards of right and wrong behavior, typically established and endorsed by a community or society.
• Morals – Personal beliefs and internalized values about what is right and wrong, guiding individual behavior.
• Virtues – Positive character traits or qualities, such as honesty or courage, that are considered morally good and enable individuals to act in alignment with ethical principles.
• Vices – Negative character traits or habits, such as dishonesty or greed, that are considered morally bad and detract from ethical behavior.
• Beliefs – Convictions or accepted ideas that shape an individual's morals, virtues, and worldview.
• Right – Actions or behaviors that are considered morally or ethically acceptable or good.
• Wrong – Actions or behaviors that are considered morally or ethically unacceptable or bad.
• Education – The process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes, often shaping ethical understanding and personal development.
• Traditions – Long-standing customs or practices passed down within a culture or community, influencing values and behavior.
• Life Experiences – Personal events and interactions that shape one’s perspectives, beliefs, and ethical outlook.
• Culture – The shared values, norms, practices, and artifacts of a group that influence behavior and ethical perspectives.
• Religion – Organized systems of beliefs and practices related to the sacred or divine, often providing ethical guidance.
• Gender – Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and identities associated with being male, female, or non-binary, influencing experiences and perspectives.
• Age – The length of time a person has lived, often affecting their perspectives and ethical viewpoints.
• Personal Lenses – The unique set of experiences, values, and perspectives that shape your own current ethical viewpoints.
• Critical Thinking – The disciplined process of actively analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information to form reasoned judgments and make well-informed decisions.
• Semantics – The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences, examining how meaning arises from language structure, word choice, and context to convey and interpret information.
• Individual – A single person, distinct from a group, with unique experiences and perspectives.
• Group – A collection of individuals who interact and share common characteristics, goals, or interests.
• Group Member – An individual who belongs to and participates in a group.
• Integrity – The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles, consistently acting in accordance with ethical standards.
• Law – A system of rules established by a governing authority to regulate behavior within a society.
• Legal – Actions or behaviors that are permitted or recognized by law.
• Illegal – Actions or behaviors that are forbidden by law.
• Moral – Conforming to principles or standards of right conduct; virtuous.
• Amoral – Lacking a sense of morality or indifference to right and wrong.
• Ethical – In accordance with accepted principles of right and wrong, especially within a professional or societal context.
• Unethical – Contrary to accepted standards of right and wrong.
• Misconduct – Improper, unethical, or illegal behavior.
• Lying – Knowingly making a false statement with the intent to deceive.
• Cheating – Acting dishonestly or unfairly to gain an advantage.
• Stealing – Taking something that does not belong to you without permission or legal right.
• Abusive Behavior – Actions that cause harm, mistreatment, or suffering to others.
• Discrimination – Unjust or prejudicial treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, or religion.
• Hazardous – Posing a risk of harm or danger.
• Conflict of Interest – A situation in which a person’s personal interests could improperly influence their professional decisions or actions.
• Falsifying Information – Deliberately altering, inventing, or misrepresenting information with the intent to deceive.
• Honesty – The quality of being truthful, transparent, and free from deceit.
• Fairness – Treating people equally and justly, without favoritism or discrimination.
• Responsibility – The obligation to act correctly and be accountable for one’s actions.
• Duty – A moral or legal obligation to perform or refrain from certain actions.
• Obligation – A requirement to act in a particular way, often arising from law, contract, or moral principle.
• Stakeholder – Any individual or group affected by or having an interest in the actions and decisions of an organization.
• Shareholder – An individual or entity that owns shares in a corporation and has a financial interest in its performance.
• Consumers – Individuals or groups who purchase and use goods or services.
• Customers – People or organizations that buy goods or services from a business.
• Employers – Individuals or organizations that hire and pay people to work for them.
• Suppliers – Entities that provide goods or services to other organizations.
• Community – A group of people living in the same area or sharing common interests, values, or goals.
• Environment – The natural world, including air, water, land, and ecosystems, affected by human activity.
• Corporation – A legal entity that is separate from its owners, with its own rights and responsibilities.
• Corporate Social Responsibility – A business model in which companies integrate social and environmental concerns into their operations and interactions with stakeholders.
• Sustainability – Meeting present and continuing needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, especially regarding environmental stewardship.
• Consistency – Acting in the same way over time, maintaining coherence in values, principles, and behavior.
• Goodwill – A positive reputation or relationship built through ethical actions and trustworthiness.
• Protection – The act of keeping people, property, or the environment safe from harm.
• Favorable – Producing or indicating a positive outcome or approval.
• Unfavorable – Producing or indicating a negative outcome or disapproval.
• Diversity – The presence of a wide range of different characteristics, backgrounds, and perspectives within a group or organization.
• Respect – Recognition and regard for the rights, feelings, and dignity of others.
• Principles – Fundamental truths or rules that guide behavior and decision-making.
• Standards – Established benchmarks or criteria used to measure and guide conduct or performance.
• Reward – Something given in recognition of service, effort, or achievement.
• Punishment – A penalty imposed for wrongdoing or violation of rules.
• Profit – The financial gain obtained when revenue exceeds expenses.
• Loss – The negative financial result when expenses exceed revenue.
• Empowered – Having the authority, confidence, or power to make decisions and take action.
• Disenfranchised – Deprived of rights, power, or access, especially to participate in decision-making.
• Code of Ethics – A formal set of guidelines and principles designed to help professionals conduct business honestly and with integrity.
• Leading by Example – Demonstrating desired behaviors and standards through one’s own actions, serving as a model for others.

As new content is introduced, additional terms will be collected and presented at the end of each chapter to facilitate future discussions using those same terms. If you feel strongly that your own personal definition of any particular term varies significantly from these ‘textbook definitions’, you should always discuss these differences with the rest of the individuals in your discussion group to determine how these differences may or may not affect the ongoing conversations. It is important to not simply dismiss these differences as minor differences in semantics when, in fact, these differences may represent the root cause of major differences in perspectives.

As you can see, in order to fully examine a concept like Ethics in Technology, a large part of the preparatory work involved is making sure that we each have a shared, common baseline from which to begin our work together. This includes coming to a shared agreement on a large number of terms that may effect the conversations. Here are just a few examples of terms that will need to be defined in upcoming chapters as part of their exploration:

intention, manipulation, transparency, true vs. false, excess, greed, bias, preferential treatment, conflict of interest, bribery vs. gift, fraud, whistle-blowing, negligence, reasonable person, adult, child, assault, threat, harm, freedom of speech, hate speech, censorship, obscenities, rights, privileges, national security, responsibility, liability, expectation of privacy, safety, liberty, risk, customer lock-in, profit, loss, capitalism, socialism, communism, feudalism, representation, health and welfare, marketing, stalking, exploitation, employee rights vs. employer rights, … so many more…

Not to mention all of the technology-related terms we will explore in future chapters such as:

automation, robotics, artificial intelligence (AI), big data, natural language processing (NLP), machine learning, telecommunications, vulnerabilities, spam, phishing, virtual private networks (VPNs), biometrics, passwords, personally-identifiable information (PII), firewalls, prevention, surveillance, remote monitoring, doxing, sexting, copyright, trademark, intellectual property, trade secret, cybersquatting, industrial espionage, quality assurance, telemedicine, 3D printing, 3D bio-printing, planned obsolescence, chatbots, digital assistants, product liability, breaches, electronic medical records (EMR), cyberstalking, cyberbullying, sexual predators, revenge porn, … and so many more of these as well!

Using the definitions of Ethical, Unethical, Legal, and Illegal, as defined above, consider this matrix:

Figure 6: Ethical vs. Legal Matrix

Several concepts that tend to be regularly (but incorrectly) confounded during discussions, are the concepts of something being either Ethical or Unethical, as well as that same thing being either Legal or Illegal. Ethics and Legalities are two different concepts. As you can see by the matrix above, a single item or situation can exist in any single one of the white cells.

In other words, something can be both Ethical as well as Legal – which many individuals think is the ideal situation. But our shared reality has shown us that the ideal situation isn’t always what we experience. Rather, you may discover that another thing may be completely Legal, while simultaneously being completely Unethical. It many societies, one can simply examine the current or historic laws or codes of conduct and they will inevitably be able to discover numerous instances of laws that, at the time, were considered Legal, however they can simultaneously be considered completely Unethical if not abhorrent.

Likewise, there can be many situations where something is completely Ethical, but may be simultaneously Illegal! And finally, something could be completely Unethical and also completely Illegal. We all have probably seen these kinds of situations as these often end up as the Breaking New stories because of their often significant shock factor!

Take a few minutes now and see if you can come up with several instances of situations for each of those four possible matrix cells. Then, ask yourself how you would be able to present, to someone else, your reasoning for placing each individual situation into its own respective cell. Understanding the ‘WHY’ that you have used to come to your conclusions is a major aspect of applied critical thinking skills.

Thinking now about the terms that have been presented in this chapter, what happens when one or more of our personal lenses illuminates a conflict when accepting the definition of a particular term? What happens when an education lens defines a concept one way and that definition is in conflict with a definition previously constructed through a religious lens? What about when a definition changes when viewed through a gender lens vs. using a cultural lens? How about when your family lens defines something one way, but your work community defines that same thing a different way? Do you know how to first identify whenever there is a conflict in definitions? Do you then know how to isolate the differences so that points of agreement and points of disagreement can be fully fleshed out?

The ability to review your own perspectives from an objective point of view is a very large part of applying the concept called Critical Thinking. This activity can help you to become well-prepared to have in-depth, meaningful discussions about the underlying ethics of any given topic. This helps you be able to see things more clearly through your own personal lenses as well as helps you be able to more closely understand how others see the same concept through their own personal lenses.

In the previous section, you were asked to think of several situations that might be appropriately placed into each of the four white cells in the Ethical vs. Legal Matrix above. Re-consider those issues or situations once again, but this time, review each instance or situation while intentionally looking through your multiple personal lenses. Can you identify which lens or lenses most significantly influence your decisions as you categorized where each situation should end up? Do the lenses that you use weigh more heavily with one lens vs. the others? What if someone else’s lenses would put the same situation into a different cell? Are you prepared to have an objective conversation with that person to delve down to discover the root differences?

The more you can practice these skills of self-reflection, the greater your capacity will become to truly understand yourself as well as your ability to empathize with those who may be viewing situations through other personal lenses or through lenses with different weights than your own. This effort pays for itself through greater shared understandings and, hopefully, with greater positive ethical decisions.