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Research Methods in Psychology: References

Research Methods in Psychology
References

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Notes

table of contents
  1. About the UNI Edition and the Original Edition Authors
  2. Preface
  3. Chapter I: The Science of Psychology
    1. Methods of Knowing
    2. Understanding Science
    3. Goals of Science
    4. Science and Common Sense
    5. Experimental and Clinical Psychologists
    6. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  4. Chapter II: Overview of the Scientific Method
    1. A Model of Scientific Research in Psychology
    2. Finding a Research Topic
    3. Generating Good Research Questions
    4. Developing a Hypothesis
    5. Designing a Research Study
    6. Analyzing the Data
    7. Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results
    8. Key Takeaways and Exercise
  5. Chapter III: Research Ethics
    1. Moral Foundations of Ethical Research
    2. From Moral Principles to Ethics Codes
    3. Putting Ethics Into Practice
    4. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  6. Chapter IV: Psychological Measurement
    1. Understanding Psychological Measurement
    2. Reliability and Validity of Measurement
    3. Practical Strategies for Psychological Measurement
    4. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  7. Chapter V: Experimental Research
    1. Experiment Basics
    2. Experimental Design
    3. Experimentation and Validity
    4. Practical Considerations
    5. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  8. Chapter VI: Non-Experimental Research
    1. Overview of Non-Experimental Research
    2. Correlational Research
    3. Complex Correlation
    4. Qualitative Research
    5. Observational Research
    6. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  9. Chapter VII: Survey Research
    1. Overview of Survey Research
    2. Constructing Surveys
    3. Conducting Surveys
    4. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  10. Chapter VIII: Quasi-Experimental Research
    1. One-Group Designs
    2. Non-Equivalent Groups Designs
    3. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  11. Chapter IX: Factorial Designs
    1. Setting Up a Factorial Experiment
    2. Interpreting the Results of a Factorial Experiment
    3. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  12. Chapter X: Single-Subject Research
    1. Overview of Single-Subject Research
    2. Single-Subject Research Designs
    3. The Single-Subject Versus Group “Debate”
    4. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  13. Chapter XI: Presenting Your Research
    1. American Psychological Association (APA) Style
    2. Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style
    3. Other Presentation Formats
    4. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  14. Chapter XII: Descriptive Statistics
    1. Describing Single Variables
    2. Describing Statistical Relationships
    3. Expressing Your Results
    4. Conducting Your Analyses
    5. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  15. Chapter XIII: Inferential Statistics
    1. Understanding Null Hypothesis Testing
    2. Some Basic Null Hypothesis Tests
    3. Additional Considerations
    4. From the “Replicability Crisis” to Open Science Practices
    5. Key Takeaways and Exercises
  16. Glossary
  17. References
  18. Back Matter

2

References

Chapter I

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Johnson, D. J., Cheung, F., & Donnellan, M. B. (2013). Does cleanliness influence moral judgments? A direct replication of Schnall, Benton, and Harvey (2008). Social Psychology, 45(3), 209-215. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000186

Kassin, S. M., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (2004). The psychology of confession evidence: A review of the literature and issues. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(2), 33-67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-1006.2004.00016.x

Klein, R. A., Ratliff, K. A., Vianello, M., Adams, R. B., Bahník, S., Bernstein, M. J., Bocian, K., Brandt, M. J., Brooks, B., Brumbaugh, C. C., Cemalcilar, Z., Chandler, J., Cheong, W., Davis, W. E., Devos, T., Eisner, M., Frankowska, N., Furrow, D., Galliani, E. M., . . . Nosek, B. A. (2013). Investigating variation in replicability: A “many labs” replication project. Social Psychology, 45(3), 142-152. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000178

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Schnall, S., Benton, J., & Harvey, S. (2008). With a clean conscience: Cleanliness reduces the severity of moral judgments. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1219-1222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02227.x

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Chapter II

Adair, J. G., & Vohra, N. (2003). The explosion of knowledge, references, and citations: Psychology’s unique response to a crisis. American Psychologist, 58(1), 15-23. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.58.1.15

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Drews, F. A., Pasupathi, M., & Strayer, D. L. (2004). Passenger and cell-phone conversations in simulated driving. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 48, 2210-2212.

Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371-378. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040525

Mueller, P. A., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2014). The pen is mightier than the keyboard: Advantages of longhand over laptop note taking. Psychological Science, 25(6), 1159-1168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614524581

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Weisberg, R. W. (1993). Creativity: Beyond the myth of genius. Freeman.

Zajonc, R. B., Heingartner, A., & Herman, E. M. (1969). Social enhancement and impairment of performance in the cockroach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13(2), 83-92. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0028063

Zajonc, R. B. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149(3681), 269-274. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.149.3681.269

Zajonc, R. B., & Sales, S. M. (1966). Social facilitation of dominant and subordinate responses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2(2), 160-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(66)90077-1

Chapter III

Baumrind, D. (1985). Research using intentional deception: Ethical issues revisited. American Psychologist, 40(2), 165-174. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.40.2.165

Bowd, A. D., & Shapiro, K. J. (1993). The case against animal laboratory research in psychology. Journal of Social Issues, 49(1), 133-142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb00913.x

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Haidt, J., Koller, S., & Dias, M. (1993) Affect, culture, and morality, or is it wrong to eat your dog? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(4), 613-628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.4.613

Koocher, G. P. (1977). Bathroom behavior and human dignity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(2), 120-121. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.35.2.120

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Miller, N. E. (1985). The value of behavioral research on animals. American Psychologist, 40(4), 423-440. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.40.4.423

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Chapter IV

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Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 116-131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 386-396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404

Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: The NEO Personality Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 4(1), 5-13. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.5

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Chapter V

Bauman, C.W., McGraw, A.P., Bartels, D.M., & Warren, C. (2014). Revisiting external validity: Concerns about trolley problems and other sacrificial dilemmas in moral psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8(9), 536-554. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12131

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Chapter VI

Abrams, L. S., & Curran, L. (2009). “And you’re telling me not to stress?” A grounded theory study of postpartum depression symptoms among low-income mothers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33(3), 351-362. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01506.x

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Radcliffe, N. M., & Klein, W. M. P. (2002). Dispositional, unrealistic, and comparative optimism: Differential relations with knowledge and processing of risk information and beliefs about personal risk. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(6), 836-846. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202289012

Rentfrow, P. J., & Gosling, S. D. (2003). The do re mi’s of everyday life: The structure and personality correlates of music preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 1236-1256. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1236

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Todd, Z., Nerlich, B., McKeown, S., & Clarke, D. D. (2004) Mixing methods in psychology: The integration of qualitative and quantitative methods in theory and practice. Psychology Press.

Trenor, J. M., Yu, S. L., Waight, C. L., Zerda. K. S & Sha T.-L. (2008). The relations of ethnicity to female engineering students’ educational experiences and college and career plans in an ethnically diverse learning environment. Journal of Engineering Education, 97(4), 449-465. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2008.tb00992.x

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Chapter VII

Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S.D. (2011). Amazon’s Mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393980

Chang, L., & Krosnick, J.A. (2003). Measuring the frequency of regular behaviors: Comparing the ‘typical week’ to the ‘past week’. Sociological Methodology, 33(1), 55-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0081-1750.2003.t01-1-00127.x

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Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59(2), 93-104. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.59.2.93

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Schwarz, N., & Strack, F. (1990). Context effects in attitude surveys: Applying cognitive theory to social research. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 31-50). Wiley.

Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports: How the questions shape the answers. American Psychologist, 54(2), 93-105. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.2.93

Strack, F., Martin, L. L., & Schwarz, N. (1988). Priming and communication: The social determinants of information use in judgments of life satisfaction. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18(5), 429-442. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420180505

Sudman, S., Bradburn, N. M., & Schwarz, N. (1996). Thinking about answers: The application of cognitive processes to survey methodology. Jossey-Bass.

Chapter VIII


Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design & analysis issues in field settings. Houghton Mifflin.

Eysenck, H. J. (1952). The effects of psychotherapy: An evaluation. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 16, 319-324. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0063633

Posternak, M. A., & Miller, I. (2001). Untreated short-term course of major depression: A meta-analysis of studies using outcomes from studies using wait-list control groups. Journal of Affective Disorders, 66(2-3), 139-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0327(00)00304-9

Smith, M. L., Glass, G. V., & Miller, T. I. (1980). The benefits of psychotherapy. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Chapter IX

Brown, H. D., Kosslyn, S. M., Delamater, B., Fama, A., & Barsky, A. J. (1999). Perceptual and memory biases for health-related information in hypochondriacal individuals. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 47(1), 67-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3999(99)00011-2

Gilliland, K. (1980). The interactive effect of introversion-extraversion with caffeine induced arousal on verbal performance. Journal of Research in Personality, 14(4), 482-492. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(80)90006-9

MacDonald, T. K., & Martineau, A. M. (2002). Self-esteem, mood, and intentions to use condoms: When does low self-esteem lead to risky health behaviors? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(3), 299-306. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.2001.1505

Schnall, S., Benton, J., & Harvey, S. (2008). With a clean conscience: Cleanliness reduces the severity of moral judgments. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1219-1222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02227.x

Schnall, S., Haidt, J., Clore, G. L., & Jordan, A. H. (2008). Disgust as embodied moral judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(8), 1096-1109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208317771

Chapter X

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1), 91-97. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91

Danov, S. E., & Symons, F. E. (2008). A survey evaluation of the reliability of visual inspection and functional analysis graphs. Behavior Modification, 32(6), 828-839. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445508318606

Dehaene, S. (2011). The number sense: How the mind creates mathematics (2nd ed.). Oxford.

Fisch, G. S. (2001). Evaluating data from behavioral analysis: Visual inspection or statistical models. Behavioral Processes, 54(1-3), 137-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0376-6357(01)00155-3

Hall, R. V., Lund, D., & Jackson, D. (1968). Effects of teacher attention on study behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1968.1-1

Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. Oxford University Press.

Ross, S. W., & Horner, R. H. (2009). Bully prevention in positive behavior support. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42(4), 747-759. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2009.42-747

Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2001). How to summarize single-participant research: Ideas and applications. Exceptionality, 9(4), 227-244. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327035ex0904_5

Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.

Sidman, M. (1960). Tactics of scientific research: Evaluating experimental data in psychology. Authors Cooperative.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Wolf, M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11(2), 203-214. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-203

Chapter XI

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).

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Bem, D. J. (2003). Writing the empirical journal article. In J. M. Darley, M. P. Zanna, & H. R. Roediger III (Eds.), The complete academic: A practical guide for the beginning social scientist (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association.

Bentley, M., Peerenboom, C. A., Hodge, F. W., Passano, E. B., Warren, H. C., & Washburn, M. F. (1929). Instructions in regard to preparation of manuscript. Psychological Bulletin, 26(2), 57-63. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0071487

Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 377-383. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0025589

Madigan, R., Johnson, S., & Linton, P. (1995). The language of psychology: APA style as epistemology. American Psychologist, 50(6), 428-436. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.50.6.428

Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Combs, J. P., Slate, J. R., & Frels, R. K. (2010). Editorial: Evidence-based guidelines for avoiding the most common APA errors in journal article submissions. Research in the Schools, 16(2), ix-xxxvi.

Chapter XII

Bem, D. J. (2003). Writing the empirical journal article. In J. M. Darley, M. P. Zanna, & H. L. Roediger III (Eds.), The complete academic: A career guide (2nd ed., pp. 185-219). American Psychological Association.

Brown, N. R., & Sinclair, R. C. (1999). Estimating number of lifetime sexual partners: Men and women do it differently. The Journal of Sex Research, 36(3), 292-297. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499909551999

Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: A contextual evolutionary analysis of human mating. Psychological Review, 100(2), 204-232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.100.2.204

Carlson, K. A., & Conard, J. M. (2011). The last name effect: How last name influences acquisition timing. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(2), 300-307. https://doi.org/10.1086/658470

Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155

Hyde, J. S. (2007). New directions in the study of gender similarities and differences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(5), 259-263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00516.x

MacDonald, T. K., & Martineau, A. M. (2002). Self-esteem, mood, and intentions to use condoms: When does low self-esteem lead to risky health behaviors? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(3), 299-306. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.2001.1505

McCabe, D. P., Roediger, H. L., McDaniel, M. A., Balota, D. A., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2010). The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning. Neuropsychology, 24(2), 222-243. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017619

Ollendick, T. H., Öst, L.-G., Reuterskiöld, L., Costa, N., Cederlund, R., Sirbu, C., Davis., T. E., & Jarrett, M. A. (2009). One-session treatments of specific phobias in youth: A randomized clinical trial in the United States and Sweden. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(3), 504-516. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015158

Schmitt, D. P., & Allik, J. (2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in 53 nations: Exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4), 623-642. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.623

Chapter XIII

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Abelson, R. P. (1995). Statistics as principled argument. Erlbaum.

Aschwanden, C. (2026, June 11). Science isn't broken: It's just a hell of a lot harder than we give it credit for. FORRT. https://forrt.org/curated_resources/science-isn-t-broken/

Brandt, M. J., IJzerman, H., Dijksterhuis, A., Farach, F. J., Geller, J., Giner-Sorolla, R., Grange, J. A., Perugini, M., Spies, J. R., & van’t Veer, A. (2014). The replication recipe: What makes for a convincing replication? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 50, 217-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2013.10.005

Cohen, J. (1994). The world is round: p < .05. American Psychologist, 49(12), 997-1003. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.49.12.997

Frank, M. (2015, August 31). The slower, harder ways to increase reproducibility. http://babieslearninglanguage.blogspot.ie/2015/08/the-slower-harder-ways-to-increase.html

Head M. L., Holman, L., Lanfear, R., Kahn, A. T., & Jennions, M. D. (2015). The extent and consequences of p-hacking in science. PLoS Biol, 13(3), Article e1002106. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002106

Hyde, J. S. (2007). New directions in the study of gender similarities and differences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 259-263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00516.x

Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00844845

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Lakens, D. (2017, December 25). About p-values: Understanding common misconceptions. CorrelAid Blog. https://correlaid.org/en/blog/understand-p-values/

Mehl, M. R., Vazire, S., Ramirez-Esparza, N., Slatcher, R. B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2007). Are women really more talkative than men? Science, 317, 82. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1139940

Nosek, B. A., Alter, G., Banks, G. C., Borsboom, D., Bowman, S. D., Breckler, S. J., Buck, S., Chambers, C. D., Christensen, G., Contestabile, M., Dafoe, A., Eich, E., Freese, J., Glennerster, R., Goroff, D., Green, D. P., Hesse, B., Humphreys, M. … Yarkoni, T. (2015). Promoting an open research culture. Science, 348(6242), 1422-1425. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab2374

Oakes, M. (1986). Statistical inference: A commentary for the social and behavioral sciences. Wiley.

Pashler, H., & Harris, C. R. (2012). Is the replicability crisis overblown? Three arguments explained. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(6), 531-536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612463401

Rosenthal, R. (1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 83(3), 638-641. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638

Schnall, S., Benton, J., & Harvey, S. (2008). With a clean conscience: Cleanliness reduces the severity of moral judgments. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1219-1222. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02227.x

Simonsohn U., Nelson L. D., & Simmons J. P. (2014). p-curve: A key to the file drawer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(2), 534-547. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033242

Tramimow, D., & Marks, M. (2015). Editorial. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 37(1), 1-2. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2015.1012991

Wilkinson, L., & Task Force on Statistical Inference. (1999). Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations. American Psychologist, 54(8), 594-604. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.8.594

Yong, E. (2015, August 27). How reliable are psychology studies? http://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2015/08/psychology-studies-reliability-reproducability-nosek/402466/

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Adapted from Rajiv S. Jhangiani, I-Chant A. Chiang, Carrie Cuttler, & Dana C. Leighton, © 2019, licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0, except where noted. This edition: Helen C. Harton & Anne Marie H. Gruber, © 2026, licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0, except where noted.
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