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Berea Writes!: Chapter 7 How And Why To Cite

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“Chapter 7 How And Why To Cite” in “Berea Writes!”

Chapter 7 - How & Why to Cite

Hand held sign reading “citation needed.”

Figure 0.1, “Citation Needed”, CC-BY 2.0, by futuratlas.com

One of the most important skills you can develop as a student is the ability to use outside sources correctly and smoothly. Academic knowledge builds on the knowledge of others, and being able to trust that a writer used real evidence in constructing their knowledge claims is crucial. Conversely, when you read writing where a writer makes big claims without evidence, you should ask big questions about their reasoning and evidence for those claims. Read the following text:

“In recent investigations, evidence supporting the corporeal existence of ghosts has surfaced. A leading paranormal expert stated, “The data we have uncovered in the past six months has proven without a doubt that ghosts can be detected; the frequency and consistency of our sightings cannot be dismissed.” This assertion is reinforced by 500 recorded encounters from around the country indicating that many these phenomena occur in the natural world. Such findings challenge the prevailing skepticism around ghost detection and suggest further research is needed to understand these anomalies.”

How do you feel after reading this paragraph? Do you feel convinced by the evidence offered? Do you believe it is real? Why or why not? Would you need further proof to be convinced? What kind of proof?

When you do academic research, you are often asked to begin using formalized methods for offering “proof” of your research efforts that line up with your field of study and create trust between you and your reader. When using outside sources, quoting, paraphrasing, and citing are core skills that honor the ideas and words of the researchers whose words/ideas you are using in your own work AND help you avoid plagiarism (using others’ words or ideas without citation), which is a big deal in the academy.

Specifically, this section will offer answers to these questions:

  1. What is a quotation, and when should I quote?
  2. How long should a quotation be?
  3. How do I use signal phrases to introduce quotations and paraphrases?
  4. How do I make a quotation work with the grammar of my own sentence?
  5. How do I make a quotation work with the grammar of my own sentence if I am not quoting a complete sentence (ellipses and brackets)?
  6. What is a paraphrase, and when should I paraphrase?
  7. What is effective paraphrasing?
  8. When does paraphrasing become plagiarism?
  9. What is plagiarism?
  10. Why should I cite?
  11. How can I avoid plagiarism?
  12. What is common knowledge?
  13. Citation 101: What do I need to know about citation?
  14. MLA Style Overview + Helpful Links
  15. How do I format works cited entries in MLA?
  16. How do I format in-text citations in MLA?
  17. APA Style Overview + Helpful Links
  18. How do I format reference page entries in APA?
  19. How do I format in-text citations in APA?
  20. Chicago Style Overview + Helpful Links
  21. How do I format bibliography page entries in Chicago NB style?
  22. How do I format in-text citations in Chicago NB style?

1. What is a quotation, and when should I quote?

A quotation is a selection of someone else’s exact words and is one of the ways by which you may make use of a source. You can use carefully selected quotations to support and illustrate points in your essay. A quote is always placed between quotation marks to show that the words within the marks are not those of the writer and are usually accompanied by a citation. For example (this example uses an MLA-style citation with the author’s last name and a paragraph number – see sections 14-22 for a more full discussion of citation):

She turned to her audience, explaining “I need a sandwich immediately” (Nichols par.1).

Quotes that are longer than four lines can also typically be indented (5 spaces from the left margin) with a citation at the end. This is called block quoting; use it sparingly to leave room for your own analysis and voice and to avoid irritating your professors. For example of block quoting, here is a block quote from Charlie Chaplin’s final speech against fascism in the satirical movie The Great Dictator (also in MLA, with speaker’s last name and timestamp of quote):

Greed has poisoned men’s souls, has barricaded the world with hate, has goose-stepped us into misery and bloodshed. We have developed speed, but we have shut ourselves in. Machinery that gives abundance has left us in want. Our knowledge has made us cynical. Our cleverness, hard and unkind. We think too much and feel too little. More than machinery we need humanity. More than cleverness we need kindness and gentleness. Without these qualities, life will be violent and all will be lost (Chaplin 3:37).

Quote when the source’s words are so good, so memorable, so well-written, that you want or need the reader to experience it for themselves. For example, if you were analyzing the style choices in Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech, you might quote because it would be important to illustrate his unforgettable language or to show his exact wording so you can discuss his word choice and sentence structure. You might also quote if the exact wording captures information, tone, or emotion that would be lost if the source were reworded. Quotes also help you write concisely if it would take longer to write the information in your own words. Finally, if you cannot reword the information yourself and retain its meaning, you should quote it. In the example below, the MLA in-text citation uses the author’s last name (Burton) and the page number from the book it is pulled rom.

Source language from Burton: It has begun. It is awful—continuous and earthquaking.

Quoting to preserve emotion: One nurse described an exchange between the two sides as “…awful—continuous and earthquaking” (Burton 120).

Once you have determined that you want to quote from a text you read, certain strategies (such as signal phrases, adjustments to grammar, punctuation, start of quote, and citations) will help you smoothly fit quotations into your writing. We will discuss these strategies in more detail below.

If the quotation immediately follows a verb capturing the act of expression, place a comma after the verb:

  • Lessig wrote, “A free culture has been our past, but it will only be our future if we change the path we are on right now” (Lessig 287).

Under limited circumstances, a colon (:) can be used to introduce a quotation. The quotation must re-identify or restate a phrase or idea that immediately precedes the colon.

  • Lessig reached a radical conclusion about copyrighted material: “It should become free if it is not worth $1 to you” (Lessig 251).

2. How long should a quotation be?

Quote only as many words as are necessary to capture the information, tone, or expression from the original work for the new context that you are providing. Lengthy quotations can backfire on a writer because key words from the source may be hidden from your reader among less important words. In addition, your own words will be crowded out. Never quote a paragraph when a sentence will do; never quote a sentence when a phrase will do; never quote a phrase when a word will do. If you are choosing to quote only part of a sentence, using an ellipsis, which is three periods grouped together, will show the reader that you chose to leave out part of the sentence that came before your quote (you’ll see more on using ellipses later in this chapter).

Source language from Burton: It has begun. It is awful—continuous and earthquaking.

Quoting everything (ok): One nurse described an artillery exchange between the two sides. She wrote, “It has begun. It is awful—continuous and earthquaking” (Burton 120).

Quoting only key words (better!): One nurse described an artillery exchange between the two sides as “…awful—continuous and earthquaking” (Burton 120).

3. How do I use signal phrases to introduce quotations and paraphrases?

Use signal words and phrases that mention your source to help your reader distinguish between the source and your own ideas. Do not drop quotes into your paper with no setup or explanation. This is your paper, and your arguments must be supported; showing the reader how the quote or paraphrase connects to and supports your ideas is an important step to take. A signal verb introduces the quote that is coming and indicates your stance towards the material.

(Figure 0.2) Some sample signal verbs/phrases:

acknowledge

emphasize

admit

illustrate

agree

note

argue

observe

assert

point out

claim

report

comment

state

compare

suggest

complain

summarize

describe

write

Use different verbs of expression to avoid being monotonous but also because some verbs are better for some situations. For example, to stress weakness in a source’s argument, you might choose to write that your source ‘admits’ or ‘concedes’ a point.

Pro tip: if you’ve never used one of the words or phrases above, look them up first! Knowing the shades of meaning for these words will help you use them well and powerfully. While adding good words like the ones above is important, in general, don’t feel the need to “overinflate” your vocabulary. Using words accurately and carefully is what will make your writing “sound smart.”

Paraphrase with signal phrase:

As the author points out, quotations are great, but sometimes paraphrases are better (DeVries 3).

Quotation with signal phrase:

In her diary, the nurse lamented that “One of the most stabbing things in this war is seeing the lines of empty motor ambulances going up to bring down the wrecks who at this moment are sound and fit” (Burton 413).

Some signal phrases do not make use of verbs but instead rely on signal phrases such as ‘according to,’ ‘in the opinion of,’ or ‘in the words of.’

4. How do I make a quotation work with the grammar of my own sentence?

Each quotation should be an element inside one of your own sentences and should not stand alone.

Example of an incorrect placement of quotation:

The author wrote about conditions for nurses during World War I.

“One of the most stabbing things in this war is seeing the lines of empty motor ambulances going up to bring down the wrecks who at this moment are sound and fit” (Burton 441).

Explanation: The quotation above stands alone without any introductory language to help the reader see its purpose in this piece of writing. Some beginning writers might try to correct the problem by changing the period after “World War II” to a comma; however, that simply tacks one sentence to the end of another and creates a punctuation error. Instead, each quotation must be introduced in your own voice and language to help the reader easily see the transition between your voice and an outside source.

One way to make a quotation work with sentence grammar is to place it after a verb of expression (e.g. states, explains, expresses).

The author states, “One of the most stabbing things in this war is seeing the lines of empty motor ambulances going up to bring down the wrecks who at this moment are sound and fit” (Burton 498).

5. How do I make a quotation work with the grammar of my own sentence if I am not quoting a complete sentence (ellipses and brackets)?

A quoted phrase can play any number of roles in the grammar of a sentence: verb, subject or object, adjective or adverb. A good rule of thumb is to read the whole sentence together out loud, including the quotation, and see if it would still work as a single sentence unit.

To integrate a quotation into a sentence, omitting words or changing basic capitalization and grammar from the source is acceptable if you follow three rules:

1) use an ellipsis … or brackets [ ] to signal the omission;

2) avoid distorting the source’s meaning; and

3) avoid changing any core words

Example 1, using an ellipsis: The nurse makes the ambulances sound like tow trucks going to retrieve demolished vehicles when she writes that it was horrible to watch “…empty motor ambulances going up to bring down the wrecks” of men (Burton 72).

Example 2, using brackets for changed capitalization: Lessig argues against the position that “[f]ile sharing threatens…the ability of creators to earn a fair return from their creativity” (Lessig 203).

Example 3, using brackets for changed capitalization and word ending: When he wrote his book, nearly everyone in the music industry felt that “[f]ile sharing threaten[ed]…the ability of creators to earn a fair return from their creativity” (Lessig 203).

Want another resource? Check out this Writing Resources tipsheet on using quotations in your writing.

6. What is a paraphrase, and when should I paraphrase?

A paraphrase preserves information from a source but does not preserve its exact wording. A paraphrase uses vocabulary and sentence structure that is largely different from the language in the original. A paraphrase may preserve specialized vocabulary shared by everyone in a field or discipline; otherwise, the writer paraphrasing a source starts fresh, creating new sentences in their own voice that repurpose the information in the source so that the information plays a supportive role.

Paraphrase when information from a source can help you explain or illustrate a point you are making in your own essay, but when the exact wording of the source is not crucial and you feel comfortable rewording it in your own language. You still need to use a citation when paraphrasing because you are still using someone else’s ideas.

Source language from an author with the last name Lessig: The war against piracy cannot be won without mapping and dividing the tasks at hand. I divide this map into two parts: that which anyone can do now, and that which requires the help of lawmakers.

Your paraphrase: Researchers argue that legislators will need to address the problem but that other people can get involved as well (Lessig 563).

If you were analyzing Lessig’s style, you might want to quote his map metaphor; however, if you were focusing on his opinions about the need to reform copyright law, a paraphrase would be appropriate.

7. What is effective paraphrasing?

Effective paraphrasing repurposes the information from a source so that the information plays a supportive role in its new location. This repurposing requires a writer to rely on their own sentence structure and vocabulary. They create their own sentences and choose their own words so that the source’s information will fit into the context of their own ideas and contribute to the development of their thesis.

Source language: Citizens of this generation witnessed the first concerted attempt to disseminate knowledge about disease prevention and health promotion, downplaying or omitting altogether information about disease treatment.

Effective paraphrase by student writer: Murphy pointed out that in the first half of the nineteenth century, people worked hard to spread information about how to prevent disease but did not emphasize how to treat them (Murphy 415).

8. When does paraphrasing become plagiarism?

A paraphrase should use vocabulary and sentence structure different from the source’s. A good paraphrase runs the source language through your brain and out onto the paper in your own grammar, style, and tone with a citation at the end to indicate where the idea came from. Potential plagiarism occurs when a writer goes through a sentence from a source and inserts synonyms without rewriting the sentence as a whole. This practice is called patchwriting, and it means you don’t have enough of your own language in your paraphrase yet.

Source language from Murphy: Citizens of this generation witnessed the first concerted attempt to disseminate knowledge about disease prevention and health promotion, downplaying or omitting altogether information about disease treatment.

Potential plagiarism (bad): People of this period observed the first organized effort to share information about preventing disease and promoting health, downplaying or skipping completely information about treating diseases (Murphy 141).

The sentence structure of the bad paraphrase is identical to the sentence structure of the source, matching it almost word for word. The writer has provided an in-text citation pointing to Murphy as the source of the information, but they are pretending that the language is their own, which is not true in this case. If you find yourself patchwriting, you need to revise your paraphrase or just use quotation.

9. What is plagiarism?

Most people who create original work want to get some kind of recognition (whether social or monetary) for their labor; everyone needs to eat. Plagiarism is when you use someone else’s work without giving them credit.  “Work” includes text, ideas, images, videos, and audio. Typically, you’ll want to use a formal citation style (usually, your professor will let you know if they have a specific style they want you to use) to give this recognition, and your professors will assume that you are taking the time to track where you found your sources (by keeping a research notebook or document to remember that information) and enter citation information appropriately into your work. Plagiarism is considered “academic dishonesty” by most institutions of higher education, with consequences ranging from needing to redo work to getting suspended from the institution. Want to read more? You might read “Defining and Avoiding Plagiarism: The WPA Statement on Best Practices.” See Berea College’s Student Handbook entry on “Student Rights and Responsibilities” for more about how this policy looks in our context. Some professors also consider writing produced by artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots like ChatGPT to be plagiarized work because it is not the author’s own, so make sure you understand and comply with each instructor’s policies in this developing area of writing technology.

In the academic world, some good rules of thumb for avoiding plagiarism are:

  • In general, plan to do your own writing and research as you learn, take notes of where you found sources, and stay aware of and comply with your institution’s and each course’s policies on academic honesty.
  • When you use a source’s exact words, use quotation marks and provide a citation.
  • When you put someone else’s information into your own words, you should still provide a citation.

When you use an image, audio, or video created by someone else, provide a citation.

Plagiarism could happen with a sentence, a paragraph, or even, in some cases, with just a word. For example, Stephen Colbert, of the television show The Colbert Report, made up the word “truthiness,” meaning something that sounds like it should be true. If you say in a paper that something has a ring of “truthiness”, you should cite Colbert. If someone else’s words catch your interest, you should cite them.

Stephen Colbert.

Figure 0.3, “Colbert in May 2009”, CC-BY 2.0, by David Shankbone

Key Takeaway

  • Plagiarism is typically considered a serious academic offense. Penalties can range from failing the assignment to failing the course to being expelled. See “Defining and Avoiding Plagiarism: The WPA Statement on Best Practices.” For our local context, see the Berea College Student Handbook for more information about academic misconduct and penalties.

Writing at Work: Ethics and Plagiarism

Plagiarism isn’t just a problem in the academic world. There are many examples of people who plagiarized at work and faced severe consequences. Jonah Lehrer, an author and staff writer for The New Yorker, fabricated quotes and copied previous work for his book, Imagine. Once his plagiarism was revealed, his book was removed from bookstores, and he was forced to resign from his job. Developing an ethical sense of how to handle the work of others, then, is an ongoing area of learning that you should take seriously both now and in the future.

10. Why should I cite?

When asked why they should cite their sources, many students reply, “So you don’t get accused of plagiarizing.” It is true that you must provide citations crediting others’ work so as to avoid plagiarism, but scholars use citations for many other (and more important!) reasons:

  • To make your arguments more credible.  You want to use the very best evidence to support your claims.  For example, if you are citing a statistic about a disease, use a credible, reputable source like the World Health Organization or Centers for Disease Control (CDC). When you tell your reader the statistic comes from this specific and trusted source, she will know to trust it– and thereby trust your argument more.
  • To show you’ve done your homework.  You want to make it clear to your audience that you’ve researched your subject, tried hard to inform yourself, and know what you are talking about. As you dive deeper into your research, you will probably find certain authors are experts on the topic and are mentioned in most of the articles and books. You should read these experts’ works and incorporate them into your paper.
  • To build a foundation for your paper. Great breakthroughs in scholarship are accomplished by building on the earlier, groundbreaking work of others. For example, Isaac Newton’s law of universal gravitation would not have been possible without Johannes Kepler’s law of planetary motion.  What articles, books, texts, inspired you to create your argument?  You are not the first person to ever consider this issue. You want to provide references to the works which led to your thesis.
  • To allow your readers to find the sources for themselves.  Someone interested in your topic may be inspired to read some of the sources you used to write your paper. The citation within the paper tells him what part of your argument is addressed by a particular source, and the full citation in the bibliography provides him with the information needed to track down that original research. This “trail of breadcrumbs” approach to sourcing helps make research easier for those who come after you.

Key Takeaway

  • Citing your sources doesn’t just save you from plagiarizing; it also adds credibility to your arguments, helps you build a strong foundation for your work, and helps your readers locate more information about your topic.

11. How can I avoid plagiarism?

Don’t procrastinate.  Students who rush make careless mistakes, such as forgetting to include a particular citation or not having all the information needed for documentation. Students under pressure may also make poor choices, such as not documenting sources and hoping the professor won’t notice. Believe us–your professor will notice, and you won’t like the long-term consequences. Rule of thumb: if you’re producing a 5-page paper with citations, begin reading and taking notes the week before you even begin writing the paper.

Read and take careful notes on source material. Keep copies or links of any digital resources you find in library databases or on the internet in a cloud-based folder, and keep physical resources such as books in a neat stack. Schedule time to read your sources; it’s ok to skim at first, but you can’t quote or paraphrase well if you haven’t made time to read, and this is often done outside of class. Finally, take careful notes; at the start of any research-based paper, begin keeping either a handwritten or digital set of research/reading notes. You need to be very clear in your notes whether you are writing down word-for-word what you found somewhere else, or if you are jotting down your own idea. You should also take down all the information you will need to create your citations (author first/last name, date published, page numbers).This will save you an enormous amount of time in the next stage.

Cite as you draft. We don’t recommend “saving citation for the end” as some students do because it creates an enormous amount of work that you have to complete when you may be most eager to be done with your paper. As you begin drafting, prepare a correctly formatted Works Cited page; any time you use a source in your draft, visit the Works Cited page and add an entry for that source. Insert in-text citations into your paper as you are writing it. If you cite-as-you-go, you won’t consume time looking up information all over again at the end, and you make it less likely that you will misidentify or omit necessary documentation.

Get comfortable with the required citation style.  The most commonly used citation styles are APA, MLA, and Chicago Notes and Bibliography.  While they share many similarities, they also have differing requirements in regards to what and when to cite. The Purdue Online Writing Lab is a fabulous online resource updated annually that contains full guides to using all three styles named below, including sample papers for formatting, and you can also find quick reference tipsheets on Writing Resources’ pulldown Tipsheets Menu. Sections 16-25 will provide more guidance on citation in general and a primer for using MLA, APA, and Chicago.

A row of books for different citation styles.

Figure 0.4, Citations, CC-BY-SA 2.0, by Fixedandfrailing

Ask your professor. If you’re not sure about citing something, check with your instructor. Ultimately, they will be the one grading your assignment and assessing whether you have cited correctly or committed plagiarism.

Key Takeaway

  • While researching and reading, create a document where you record quotes, source information like author name, title, date, and where you found it.
  • Don’t put off creating your citations until the last minute. Cite as you go and don’t be afraid to ask for help if you need it along the way.

12. What is common knowledge?

You’ll often hear academics say that you don’t need to cite “common knowledge” information, but what is that? Common knowledge is information that is accepted and known so widely you do not need to cite it:

  • Common sayings or cliches. Examples: Curiosity killed the cat.  Ignorance is bliss.
  • Facts that can be easily verified. As you are conducting your research on a topic, you will see the same facts repeated over and over.  Example: You are writing a paper on presidential elections, and you want to mention that Ronald Reagan was elected in 1980.  Although you might not have known this fact before your research, you have seen it multiple times and no one ever argues about it.
  • Facts that you can safely assume your readers know.  Examples: Richmond is the capital of Virginia. The North won the U.S. Civil War.  Fish breathe using gills.

Not all facts are common knowledge. You will still need to cite:

  • Facts that surprise you or your reader.  Example: Michelangelo was shorter than average (Hughes and Elam 4).
  • Facts that include statistics or other numbers. Example: As of June 2009, 42 states had laws that explicitly ban gay marriage, and 6 states have legalized it (U.S. Department of Labor).
  • If you use the exact words of another writer, even if the content could be considered common knowledge.  Example: Lincoln’s first campaign dates to “1832, when he ran as a Whig for the Illinois state legislature from the town of New Salem and lost” (Lincoln 451).

Tip: Disciplinary “Common Knowledge” Varies

Common knowledge can be course-specific.  For example, the number of bones in the leg could be considered common knowledge in an athletic training course. But if you are using that fact in an English paper, you cannot assume your professor would have that knowledge, and you would need to cite it.

Key Takeaway

  • Deciding if something is common knowledge is tricky and can vary depending on your course and your topic. When in doubt, ask your professor for advice.

13. Citation 101: What do I need to know about citation?

Different fields of study prefer different methods of documenting the use of sources, so expect that different professors will ask for a variety of citation styles and expect you to learn about them and apply them on your own. Typically, instructors are not asking you to change styles to torture you; instead, there are groups of disciplines that value different kinds of information in higher education. Your sociology professor truly, really wants to know the exact year of publication right there in the in-text citation (APA), and your literature professor does care that you found your quote on page 310 of the second Norton edition of Their Eyes Were Watching God (MLA). The three most commonly used citation styles at Berea College are MLA, APA, and Chicago (Notes and Bibliography version).

Most citation styles have three basic features to pay attention to (though some have more). When getting used to a new citation style, you’ll need to think about:

1) Formatting - margins, font type/size, headers, page numbering, title pages (or not!), abstracts, and other conventions;

2) In-Text Citation - citations after quotations or paraphrasing; and

3) Works Cited or Reference pages - longer entries in a page at the end of a paper providing more detailed information on each source you used in whatever order that style requires.

It's fairly easy to learn the basic layout for each citation style you’ll use, but it is impossible to memorize all the variations for different sources. Some sources are available online; some sources are audiovisual instead of print; some sources have translators and editors; some sources have multiple authors; and others have archival information. These and other details must find their way into references, and you should know, now, that no one expects you to memorize these details. Instead, good researchers learn to consult resources that illustrate the variations, Google specific types of sources (“cite archival material in MLA 9), and then ask yourself which examples seem closest to the source you are trying to document. Creating helpful references for your readers requires attention to both details and basic patterns as well as problem-solving skills and creativity.

Key Takeaways

  • Don’t panic when it comes to learning a new citation style. It’s normal for even experienced researchers to use resources like Purdue OWL and find citations that are a “closest match” for what they are trying to cite.
  • Writing Resources consultants and/or class TAs can help you figure out how to adjust to a new citation style or cite a source that doesn’t match up with the common examples.

14. MLA Style Overview + Helpful Links

MLA, produced by the Modern Language Association, is often used in humanities-based disciplines like English Literature or in General Studies courses (like L&I 1 and 2). Purdue OWL has excellent citation resources for MLA, and Writing Resources has a quick reference tipsheet you might also use. MLA is currently in its 9th edition; its first edition was created in 1951.

Helpful Links to Use Often for MLA

Annotated MLA Sample Paper, Purdue Online Writing Lab

MLA Quick Reference Tipsheet, Writing Resources, Berea College

Full MLA Guide, Purdue Online Writing Lab

15. How do I format works cited entries in MLA?

Works Cited pages in MLA record bibliographic information (organized alphabetically by author) about sources that have already been cited in the text. You’ll use a “hanging indent” in Word to indent all but the first line of each entry to help the reader move through the page.The necessary information is author, title, and details about publication (when the source was published and who published it). The order of the information and the punctuation, abbreviation, and spacing conventions may differ depending on the documentation style you are following (and do matter), but the purpose of the references will be the same: to allow a reader to easily track down your sources. Remember, there are an infinite variety of source types; find your source’s “closest fit” using a guide like those available at Purdue OWL, and then make a good faith attempt to cite. Missing information (e.g. no author, etc.)? In MLA, just leave out that information and move on to the next item of information that you do have. If you can’t find any information about a secondary source, it’s worth asking yourself if it’s a reliable source.

Here are some starter examples (see links in section 14 for more details):

Basic MLA style works cited entry for a book with a single author:

Author Last Name, Author First Name. Title of the Book. Publisher, Date.

Example:

Burton, Katelyn. The Best Librarian in the World. Oxford Press, 2016.

Basic MLA style works cited entry for a journal article:

Author(s). "Title of the Article." Title of the Journal, Volume number, Issue number. Date,   including month or season if you have it, Page numbers. Database Title, URL/Link to the article.

Example:

Burton, Katelyn. "Librarians Are Amazing." Library Journal, vol. 22, no. 3. Spring 2016, pp. 7-28. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/61245.

Basic MLA style works cited entry for a webpage:

Author(s). "Title of the Webpage." Title of the Website, Date, including day and month if you have it, URL/Link to the webpage.

 Example:

Burton, Katelyn. "Tips for Citing Sources." Brown Library Website, 14 June 2016, http://http://www.virginiawestern.edu/library/index.php.

Want to see more examples? Here is a sample works cited page on Purdue Online Writing Lab.  

16. How do I format in-text citations in MLA?

In-text citations point readers toward a source that a writer is using in her own article or essay. They are placed inside your paragraphs, a position that explains why they are called “in-text.” In-text citations are also called parenthetical citations because information identifying the source will be placed inside parentheses ( ) in styles like MLA and APA. A writer citing using MLA style will provide the following in-text information for his readers:*

  • Author’s last name or the name of the organization that created the source
  • Page or paragraph number if available

Example:

In the first half of the nineteenth century, people worked hard to spread information about how to prevent disease but did not emphasize how to treat diseases (Murphy 141).

*Note! There are many other details that can pop up for in-text citations (multiple authors, no title, no paragraph number, video resources, etc.). There is usually a way that a source like that one has been documented previously. See the full-length MLA guide linked in Section 14 above for more resources!

17. APA Style Overview + Helpful Links

APA, produced by the American Psychological Association, is often used in the social sciences and some undergraduate science courses.. Purdue OWL has excellent citation resources for APA style, and Writing Resources has a quick reference tipsheet. APA is currently in its 7th edition and began in 1929. Formatting requirements to look up if you’re new to APA might include a title page, an abstract, and a running header (no longer required for APA 7th edition, but some professors still want them). See links below for examples!

Additional Links

Annotated APA Sample Paper, Purdue Online Writing Lab

APA Quick Reference Tipsheet, Writing Resources, Berea College

Full APA Guide, Purdue Online Writing Lab

18. How do I format reference entries in APA?

Reference pages in APA record bibliographic information (organized alphabetically by author) about sources that have already been cited in the text. Fun fact: in APA, you only use the initial (instead of the first name) of the author as an effort to avoid bias. Also, you’ll see that the date is closer to the beginning of the entry to value recency of information. You’ll use a “hanging indent” in Word to indent all but the first line of each entry to help the reader move through the page. The necessary information is author, title, and details about publication (when the source was published and who published it). The order of the information and the punctuation, abbreviation, and spacing conventions always differ depending on the documentation style you are following (and do matter), but the purpose of the references will be the same: to allow a reader to easily track down your sources. Remember, there are an infinite variety of source types; find your source’s “closest fit” using a guide like those available at Purdue OWL, and then make a good faith attempt to cite. Missing information (e.g. no author, etc.)? In APA, just leave out that information and move on to the next item of information that you do have. If you can’t find any information about a secondary source, it’s worth asking yourself if it’s a reliable source.

Basic APA style Reference page entry for a book:

Author Last Name, Author Initial. (Year of publication). Title of the Book. Publisher.

Example:

Burton, K. (2016).The Best Librarian in the World. Oxford Press.

Basic APA style Reference entry for a journal article:

Author(s). (Year, including month/season if you have it). Title of article. Title of the Journal, Volume number(Issue number), Page numbers. URL/DOI.

Example:

Burton, K. (2016 Spring). Librarians are amazing. Library Journal,22(3), 7-28. http://www.jstor.org/61245 .

Basic APA style reference page entry for a webpage:

Author(s). (Year, Month Day). Title of the webpage. Title of the Website. URL/Link to the webpage.

 Example:

Burton, K. (2016, June 14).Tips for citing sources. Brown Library Website. http://http://www.virginiawestern.edu/library/index.php.

19. How do I format in-text citations in APA?

In-text citations point readers toward a source that a writer is using in her own article or essay. They are placed inside your paragraphs, a position that explains why they are called “in-text.” In-text citations are also called parenthetical citations because information identifying the source will be placed inside parentheses ( ) in styles like MLA and APA. A writer citing using APA style will provide the following in-text information for his readers*:

  • Author’s last name or the name of the organization that created the source
  • Date of publication (this is how much the sciences value recency!)
  • Page or paragraph number if available

Example:

In the first half of the nineteenth century, people worked hard to spread information about how to prevent disease but did not emphasize how to treat diseases (Murphy, 2024, p. 141).

*Note! There are many other ways to do in-text citations (multiple authors, no title, no paragraph number, video resources, etc.). See the full-length APA guide linked in Section 17 above for more resources!

20. Chicago Style Overview + Helpful Links

CMoS, or Chicago Manual of Style, is usually called Chicago style and is published by the University of Chicago Press. Frequently used by journalists and business writers as well as scholars, Chicago has multiple variations (Author-Date and Notes & Bibliography are two versions). The most frequent variation we see at Berea College is Chicago Notes and Bibliography, which is often used in History, so the examples below are all N&B. Purdue OWL has excellent citation resources for Chicago Notes and Bibliography style, and Writing Resources has a quick reference tipsheet you might also use. CMoS is currently in its 18th edition. Need help with Chicago style? Feel free to make an appointment with Writing Resources.

Additional Links

Annotated Chicago NB Sample Paper, Purdue Online Writing Lab

Chicago NB Quick Reference Tipsheet, Writing Resources, Berea College

Full CMOS NB Guide, Purdue Online Writing Lab

21. How do I format bibliography page entries in Chicago NB?

Bibliographic pages in Chicago (similar to works cited or reference pages) and record bibliographic information, organized alphabetically by author, about sources that have already been cited in the text. You’ll use a hanging indent (Google it for directions if needed) in Word to indent all but the first line of each entry to help the reader easily see where each source is. The necessary information is author, title, and details about publication, such as when the source was published and who published it. The order of the information and the punctuation, abbreviation, and spacing conventions always differ (and do matter) depending on the documentation style you are following, but the purpose of the references will be the same: to allow a reader to easily track down your sources and check your work. Remember, there are an infinite variety of source types; find your source’s “closest fit” using a guide like those available at Purdue OWL, and then make a good faith attempt to cite. Missing information (e.g. no author, etc.)? Just leave out that information and move on to the next item of information that you have. If you can’t find any information about a secondary source, it’s worth asking yourself if it’s a reliable source.

Basic Chicago NB style Bibliography page entry for a book:

Author Last Name, Author First Name. Title of the Book. Publication City: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example:

Burton, Katelyn. The Best Librarian in the World. Oxford: Oxford Press, 2016.

Basic Chicago NB style Bibliography entry for an online journal article:

Author Last Name, Author First Name. “Title of article.” Title of the Journal Volume number no. issue (Month Year): Page range or other locator, accessed Month Day, Year, URL/DOI.

Example:

Burton, Katelyn. “Librarians are amazing.” Library Journal 22 no. 3 (May 2016): 7-28, accessed January 25, 2025, http://www.jstor.org/61245 .

Basic Chicago NB style Bibliography entry for a work from a website (include author name if available):

“Title of article.” Title of Site. Month Day, Year of publication or modification. Accessed Month Day, Year. URL/Link to the webpage.

Example:

“Tips for Citing Sources.” Brown Library. June 14, 2016. Accessed January 25, 2025. http://http://www.virginiawestern.edu/library/index.php. 

22. How do I format in-text citations in Chicago NB?

If you are new to Chicago NB, you should know that in-text citation looks a little different in this style compared to MLA or APA. In-text citations are always pointing readers toward a source that a writer is using in their own article or essay, but Chicago NB asks the writer to provide longer-form in-text documentation on the page than you might be used to if you’ve been using MLA or APA. Historians often love Chicago NB because the reader can see, right away, exactly which sources you’re using, how many times you’re using the same source, and where your information came from AND still get all that information from your bibliography page at the end of the paper.

We recommend using Microsoft Word to write a Chicago NB paper because it incorporates footnotes more smoothly (it’s possible to use Googledocs as well, but watch the formatting). Using Word, a writer citing using Chicago Notes and Bibliography will get to the end of the sentence where the source is cited, then go to the “References” tab in Word, and hit “Insert Footnote” located under the “Footnotes” section. Word will automatically create a footnote in the footer of that page of the paper.

Basic In-Text Citation using Footnotes in Chicago NB:

Once you’ve inserted a footnote, you’re ready to type the in-text citation. The in-text citation in Chicago NB changes depending on how many times you’ve mentioned the source (hang in there).

The first time you mention a specific source, the note uses all the same information from the bibliography entry but in a slightly different format (author names go first last, for example) and with different punctuation (usually commas instead of periods) between entries. It also includes the page numbers you reference in your text. You don’t use hanging indents for notes. For a book, it looks like this:

1.Author First Name Author Last Name, Title of Work, (Publisher, year of publication), page number(s).

The second time you mention a specific source, its note contains a shorter version of the bibliographic information, again with commas between entries. For a book, it would look like this:

5. Author Last Name, Title of Work, page number(s).

The third time you mention a specific source, and every time after that, its note is even shorter. *

7. Author Last Name, page number(s).

*Note - You might see some examples online using the phrase “Ibid” (short for “ibidem, which

means “in the same place” in Latin) in situations like this third example. In Chicago

18th Edition, the use of “Ibid” isn’t recommended anymore, so don’t worry about using it unless your professor tells you otherwise. If your professor wants you to use Ibid in place of sources repeated two or more times in a row, you can simply write: “Ibid., page number.” if using a source for the third time or beyond. 

*Note! There are many other ways to do in-text citations for various source types (multiple authors, no title, no paragraph number, video resources, etc.). See the full-length Chicago guide linked in Section 20 above for more resources!

Public Domain Content:

Radford University Core Handbook. Authored by: Laurie Cubbison et al. Institution: Radford University. License: CC-0

Image Credits:

Figure 0.1, “Citation Needed”, CC-BY 2.0, by futuratlas.com.

Figure 0.2 Some sample signal verbs, CC-0, Virginia Western Community College

Figure 0.3, “Colbert in May 2009”, CC-BY 2.0, by David Shankbone.

Figure 0.4, Citations, CC-BY-SA 2.0, by Fixedandfrailing.

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