Chapter 4: Working in Teams – Developing Norms & Building Cohesion

Learning Objectives

• Identify primary and secondary tensions that might affect team development.
• Differentiate between task and social cohesion and understand how each affects team progress.
• Utilize effective strategies for the first team meeting to establish norms and expectations
• Identify challenges you might face when working in a team and develop possible solutions.

In the previous chapter, we discussed the psychology behind teams and roles that can benefit or create challenges for the group and impact team cohesion. This chapter aims to expand on challenges teams may face, offer suggestions for developing team norms, and build a toolkit of strategies for those in task and maintenance roles to use to strengthen groups.

Believe it or not, the challenges for individuals working in teams begins before the first meeting takes place. Berko et al. (2012) categorized two types of tensions that groups will encounter: primary and secondary. Primary tensions happens initially when groups are formed, and secondary tensions occur after groups have been developed and meet for the first time.

Primary Tension

Individuals might feel tension before a meeting begins due to the following reasons (Zaremba, 2010):

• A fear that each group member will not have similar tasks and responsibilities.
• Uncertainty about what will happen at the meeting and the possibility for uncomfortable or distressing topics.
• Apprehension that the task might involve written or speaking skills they are not competent in.
• Communication apprehension, which means they are nervous about communicating in that context.
• Concern that the meeting or project will cause more work or work beyond their capabilities.
• They do not feel properly prepared.
• Previous negative group experiences or a negative working relationship with the team leader.
• Time constraints.
• Other personal issues that might interfere with their involvement with the group.

As you can see, each of these tensions can make work conditions rather uncomfortable. Think about a group meeting that you had to prepare for, did you have any of these primary tensions? How did you react to them?

Secondary Tensions

Secondary tensions occur after the meeting begins and can be classified into four types: procedural, equity, affective, and substantive (Zaremba, 2010).

• Procedural tensions are perceptions that the group is not productive. For example, team members may believe the agenda is ineffective and/or the team leader is not adhering to the agenda.
• Equity tensions happen when group members do not feel equal. They may feel that certain things are not fair, such as workload or level of responsibility. Equity issues may also stem from feeling that there are controlling members that dominate discussions whose opinions are valued more than others.
• Affective tensions happen when team members do not like each other. This leads to poor communication practices and potentially rivalry and competitiveness in the group.
• Substantive tensions happen when there are legitimate concerns about the task or how it is being performed. Conflict here can turn into moments of problem solving, creativity, and increased information sharing, and provides a better perspective of objectives and goals. Substantive conflict is beneficial because multiple perspectives are considered leading to better outcomes.

Norms

Other teams may find themselves chatting at the beginning of meetings, unconsciously setting a norm that meetings start five minutes after the scheduled time, allowing space for tardiness to also become a norm. There are many unspoken rules, or implicit norms, that people diligently follow even if those rules aren’t written down anywhere which makes it hard to recognize them. For example, think of an elevator. When you get on, you turn to face the door. There are no signs telling you to do so, in fact the absence of written rules implies that “anything goes” in an elevator, yet the majority of the population will space themselves apart, refrain from singing, stand rather than sit on the floor, move over to let others in and out, and so on (note: these norms vary in different parts of the world.)

One challenge of the COVID era was the necessity of new, explicit norms that went against implicit norms. Some elevators, for instance, had signs warning that only one or two people were allowed in an elevator car at a time, and if the door opened and a new person wanted to get on, you were supposed to violate politeness norms and tell them to wait for the next car. The elevator sign here is an example of trying to impose explicit norms that fly in the face of implicit ones. Did anyone ever follow this standing arrangement? It can be very difficult to stop performing implicit norms because they fall outside our consciousness.

Some norms fall within the task dimension of the group: getting the work done. One basic factor is how committed members are to the tasks — do they stay for long meetings, or just do the minimal amount of work and leave as soon as possible? Is all work done meticulously and checked and rechecked by others, or is it “slap dash” and hasty? What is the information flow in the group: is everyone kept informed of everything, and if so, through what channels? How are decisions made, and who is included in that process?

Other norms revolve around the social dimension of the group: how much time people spend chatting before they get down to business, how well they get to know each other, how “personal” things get, what the emotional climate of the group is (warm, chilly, heated, calm?), the morale level, how big a role humor plays, and how conflict is expressed.

One curious thing about group norms (especially those implicit in nature) is that members of the group may be completely unaware of them. When asked about group norms, teams often reply “We don’t have norms in our group; we’re just normal.” (notice the word “norm” in the middle of the word “norm-al”). Implicit norms can lead to problems if teammates have different views on what the “norms” are. Think back to the team who spends the first five minutes of meetings chatting. What if Emily started coming to meetings five minutes late because they knew no ‘real work’ would be missed, but José viewed that socialization time as integral for team bonding? One person’s perceived violation could be viewed by another as a norm.

It is important to discuss and set norms that each group member can abide by because when members violate group norms (implicit or explicit, intentionally or unintentionally, task or social), other team members get frustrated. It can impact interpersonal relationships within the group as well as the group’s overall goal.

When norms are violated, group members most often will work to correct the violation to get the group back on task and functioning properly. Have you ever been in a group in which a particular group member did not do the task that was assigned to them? What happened? How did the group handle this situation as a whole? What was the response of the person who did not complete the task? In hindsight, would you have handled it differently? If so, how?

Cultivating a Supportive Group Climate

The previous chapter introduced the importance of group cohesion but didn’t explain how teams achieve cohesion. Sometimes, individuals have worked together before or are already friends providing a starting block for cohesion, but it is through the establishment and performance of task and social norms, that cohesion is built. As such, there are two types of cohesion – task cohesion and social cohesion (mirroring categories of norms).

Task cohesion is the commitment of team members to the purpose, work, and goals of the group. Social cohesion is the level of attraction and liking between members. Ideally, teams have a balance of both types of cohesion, though depending on the personalities and needs of a team, one type of cohesion may play a larger role than the other. For example, a team of workers from the local car dealership may join a summer softball league because they’re good friends and love the game. They may end up beating the team of faculty members from the community college who joined the league just to get to know each other better and have an excuse to get together and drink beer in the afternoon. In this example, the players from the car dealership exhibit high social and task cohesion, while the faculty exhibit high social but low task cohesion. Together, these types of cohesion help make up the group climate, or the tone and quality of a group’s experience.

Groups with an appropriate level of cohesiveness (Hargie, 2011):

• set goals easily
• exhibit a high commitment to achieving the purpose of the group
• are more productive
• experience fewer attendance issues
• have group members willing to stick with the group during times of difficulty
• have satisfied group members who identify with, promote, and defend the group
• have members who are willing to listen to each other and offer support and constructive criticism
• experience less anger and tension.

Cohesiveness is not the only factor in creating a positive group climate. Relational communication skills (Marston & Hecht, 1988) are also key including:

• Participation - Group members feel better when they feel included in the discussion and a part of the functioning of the group.
• Messages - Confirming messages help build relational dimensions within a group, and clear, organized, and relevant messages help build task dimensions within a group.
• Feedback - Positive, constructive, and relevant feedback contribute to the group climate.
• Equity - Aside from individual participation, group members also like to feel as if participation is managed equally within the group and that appropriate turn-taking is used.
• Clear and accepted roles - Group members like to know how status and hierarchy operate within a group. Knowing the roles isn’t enough to lead to satisfaction, though—members must also be comfortable with and accept those roles.
• Motivation - Member motivation is activated by perceived connection to and relevance of the group’s goals or purpose.

Group cohesion and climate are also demonstrated through symbolic convergence (Bormann, 1985). Have you ever been in a group that had ‘inside jokes’ that someone outside the group just would not understand? Symbolic convergence refers to the sense of community or group consciousness that develops in a group through non-task-related communication such as stories and jokes. The originator of symbolic convergence theory, Ernest Bormann, claims that the sharing of group fantasies creates symbolic convergence. Fantasy, in this sense, doesn’t refer to fairy tales or untrue things. In group communication, group fantasies are talk that discusses events outside the “here and now” of the group, including references to the group’s past, predictions for the future, or other communication about people or events outside the group (Griffin, 2009).

In any group, you can tell when symbolic convergence is occurring by observing how people share such fantasies and how group members react to them. If group members react positively and agree with or appreciate the teller’s effort or other group members are triggered to tell their own related stories, then convergence is happening, and cohesion and climate are being established. Over time, these fantasies build a shared vision of the group and what it means to be a member that creates a shared group consciousness.

By using knowledge of tensions, norms, cohesion, and symbolic convergence, you are on your way to building a positive and rewarding team experience. This work begins at the first meeting and should be considered and practiced throughout your time working together. The remaining sections of this chapter lay out best practices for first team meetings to begin the journey of building team cohesion and a positive team climate, then discusses roadblocks your teams may encounter along the way and communication strategies which may help resolve the issues and enhance future interactions.

Strategies for your first meeting:

It can be difficult to navigate your first team meeting. It is okay to feel anxious or uncertain; you may find your teammates feel the same way. Talking about how you feel and using some of the strategies identified below might help you overcome feelings of anxiety as well as build a strong foundation of task and social norms for your team. These strategies were informed by Benavides (2022).

Strategy 1: Introductions and Icebreakers

Ensure everyone introduces themselves and shares something about themselves (e.g. favorite food, hobbies etc.). It is also a good idea to engage in an icebreaker activity (as outlined below), which can help everyone feel comfortable in the team space.

Ice-Breaker Activity

Ice-breakers are often a dreaded activity, but they can be fun. Icebreakers are activities designed to ‘break the ice’ between team members, to help ease the anxiety team members may be feeling about working with unfamiliar people. The aim is to start a conversation, learn something new about your teammates or share a laugh together. The activity is designed to put you out of your comfort zone a little bit, but remember, all your teammates are feeling just as uncomfortable and apprehensive as you!

Here are some prompts you might like to consider getting to know your teammates:

• What color socks are you wearing? (This can be a good opportunity to share why you chose those particular socks today, or if there is a story behind your socks).
• If you could pick any superpower (e.g. super speed, flying, strength etc.), what would it be and why?
• What is your favorite animae (or other topic)?
• If money was not an issue, where is your ideal holiday destination and why?
• What are you currently watching on Netflix (or Disney +, or your preferred steaming service)?

Feel free to come up with any other questions that might help you to get to know your teammates better.

Strategy 2: Sharing contact information

Complete a contract with your team that includes preferred methods of contact. Be sure that the contact method chosen is a) an acceptable form of communication used and understood by each team member, and b) checked regularly (your team can establish what that means) by each team member. Stick to one primary mode of communication but provide a back-up communication method in case of technology issues. For example, text may work best until a team member accidently takes their phone into the pool.

Strategy 3: Advocate for Yourself - How Do You Learn/Work Best

Not everyone works or learns the same. Talk about what works for you and find an equitable way to work together. For example, one person may prefer to show up to a meeting and pitch ideas cold while another prefers to know what topics will be discussed at the meeting so they can think on them and write down some ideas in advance. How can your team build an environment that works for all learning and working types? Mention any specific communication needs or accommodations you can make as a team to support each other. Only share what you feel comfortable to.

Strategy 4: Establishing ground rules

While completing your contract, discuss and include team norms and rules as well as the boundaries of the project. Make sure the contract is something everyone can access and refer to throughout the project. These expectations can be changed over time as you work together and find norms that best fir your team, however establishing a starting point is important. Remember, when forming teams, members often say, “I think we all know how to act” or “you all seem awesome so I’m sure everything will be fine.” While it is a great mentality to believe the best in others, most conflict in teams does not come from actual actions, but from misunderstandings related to cultural norms, generational differences, power in positions, deadlines, the meaning of “completed work”, etc. Having these discussions and setting expectations before work begins will create a more pleasant and smooth process for your project.

A good starting point would be to consider:

• Where and when the meeting will take place
• Methods of communication that will be used
• Shared aims, goals and outcomes
• How the workload will be shared
• Agreement on each member’s contribution, commitment to make teamwork successful
• What you’ll do if you don’t hear from a team member after an agreed upon interval
• Expected standards and behavior
• Practices for avoiding plagiarism and using AI technology

Strategy 5: Setting and Achieving Goals

It is important to have goals as a team, so you know what you are working towards, and why you are working together. Having a goal allows you to know what your focus is and can give you something to celebrate at the end of the project. Remember, a goal is a big idea. Think about what you need to do to achieve your goal. Break those tasks up into manageable chunks. Note: if you find it overwhelming to look at the whole task in one go or find yourself losing motivation over the course of the team project, breaking the task into small, manageable chunks can be really helpful. Goblin tools is a website that can help you to refine your goals/projects. Put your ideas into the Magic ToDo and let it summarize the steps for your project. You’ll likely need to refine the list, but it’s a good starting point.

Remember: When considering who is responsible for each task, also consider whether everyone has a fair amount of work. Is one person doing all of the admin work? Is one person learning a new skill? Be sure to consider how much time each task takes and the level of experience of each team member. Less experience = more time needed for a task. How can you share the tasks fairly for everyone?

Strategy 6: Organize your next meeting

Organize the next meeting time and location at the end of your first meeting so everyone knows when you will next meet.

Roadblocks and Communication Strategies

After your first meeting, your team will begin the work and attempt to follow the expectations laid out in the contract. It’s rarely smooth sailing and teams should be prepared to adapt. Conflict and challenges will occur. Remember, not all conflict is bad! Some conflict can help your team create well-thought-out projects that exceed expectations. Sometimes, teammates will push the limits of agreed upon norms due to life circumstances, competing work commitments, or other factors. These are things your team must work through together. Below are several conflicts or challenges which can occur in teams as well as potential solutions your team can use to continue building cohesive teams and positive climates.

Activities to Strengthen Teamwork Skills

Often, working in teams requires making a compromise. It can be very difficult and frustrating when you are so sure you have the right approach but no one else can see it.  In a team, it is more important to be able to agree on a solution together than have one person making all the decisions, knowing what is “right” or always getting their way. Understanding that multiple perspectives exist and working together to resolve a conflict or issue is one of the most valuable team skills you can develop. The following activities can be used as exercises in your group to build norms of compromise and perspective-taking conversations. These activities stem from Hargreaves & Dawe (1990).

Activity 1: No bad ideas…

There are no bad ideas when it comes to a team project, right?

Sometimes it can be challenging to know where to start with your project, so this activity is designed to set you up for success, by allowing the team to have a laugh together and generate some ideas for the project.

For this activity, you will need a whiteboard, a large piece of paper or a digital collaboration tool like Google docs.

1. As a group, briefly discuss your project’s topic or the problem you are trying to solve.

2. Using the collaboration tools mentioned above, have everyone write down their worst ideas. This might be something like ‘copy an existing project’, ‘take a nap’ or anything, really! There are only bad ideas!

3. Once everyone has written their ideas, step back and have a good laugh.

4. Discuss your favorite worst ideas.

You now have a starting point for your project; you know what you will not be doing! Now you can start brainstorming some good idea! This activity also helps your team to resist the urge to self-censor when it comes to good ideas, because all the bad ideas are already on paper.

Suggested time required: 10 minutes 

Activity 2: Discussing hard topics without arguing

This activity will help scaffold your discussion if you find yourself disagreeing as a team. Practicing this activity early in the project will help your team be better equipped to work through disagreement without a heated argument! It can also help you clarify ideas.

1. Pick a subject to discuss (e.g. one person not contributing as much to the project).

2. Choose one or two people to present each side of the discussion. The rest of the team acts as an audience.

3. While the discussion is held, follow these rules:

a. You can ask for clarification, but can’t disagree with what the other side says

b. You can point out areas of agreement, but not areas of disagreement.

c. The audience can’t intervene in the discussion.

After each side has had their chance to mount a case, the audience can join in by asking questions. They still can’t argue or disagree.

Suggested time required: 20 – 30 minutes 

Activity 3: Making a case for the opposite

This is a quick and simple way of trying to diffuse arguments between members in a team who disagree strongly.

1. The two people who disagree literally swap seats.

2. They then take turns to make a case for the opposite point of view (without being sarcastic) striving to understand and accurately convey the other’s perception and stance.

3. They try to reach a mutually acceptable decision, or to agree to disagree where practical

Suggested time required: 15 – 20 minutes 

Activity 4: Pros and cons

If your team tends to default to one decision maker, if team members struggle to make their voices heard during larger team discussions, or if you want to be sure multiple perspectives are considered in decision-making processes, this activity can help.

1. List competing ideas and divide your team into pairs

2. Each pair lists the pros and cons of each idea

3. Each pair then decides, based on the number and strength of the pros and cons, which ideas they think are the best.

4. Come back together as a whole group, compare results and look for agreement.

Suggested time required: 15 – 20 minutes. 

Key Takeaways & Summary

Now that you’ve read the chapter, write a summative conclusion with your key takeaways. What information do you want to remember? How does it all tie together, and why does this information matter? You will thank yourself when it’s time for the exam.

Authors & Attribution

The content in this chapter was remixed, adapted and/or authored by Seroka, L. (2025) from:

• Chapter 8: Teams in the Workplace, found within Organizational Communication – Theory, Research, and Practice by Anonymous on LibreTexts licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license
• Chapter 16.3 Norms and Roles, found within Communication in Practice by Jeremy Rose on University of Minnesota Libraries licensed under a CC BY 4.0 International License
• 54. 13.2 Small Group Development, found withing Communication Studies by Tatyana Thweatt published through Pima Community College licensed under a CC BY 4.0 International License
• Chapter 10: Activities to Strengthen Teamwork Skills, found within Communication and Teamwork Skills to Support Neurodiversity by Teagan Menhenett, Nick Milne, and Siva Krishnan. (2025). published through Deakin University via the Council of Australian University Librarians Open Educational Resources Collective. This content is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0.

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